TABLE OF CONTENTS 
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 

Highland Breed Characteristics, Angus Mackay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

GENETICS AND SELECTION 

Structural Correctness in Beef Cattle, Harlan Ritchie, Ph.D., & Peter Anderson, Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 
Genetics 101, Scott Barao,Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

NUTRITION 

Getting Started Grazing, Ohio State University Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 
Winter Feeding, William Lipsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 
Finishing Rations, Jim Welch,Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

REPRODUCTION 

Calving Time, Pat White,D.V.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 
Artificial Insemination vs. Natural Selection, William Lipsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 
Gestation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 

MANAGEMENT 

Basics For Highland Owners, Tom Field, Ph.D., John Scanga, Ph.D., 

Celina Johnson,Ph.D.,Brett Kaysen & Michael Hays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 
The Value of Information, Tom Field,Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 
Minimum and Maximum Herd Health Program, Pat White,D.V.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 
Weaning Strategies, William Lipsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 
Halter Breaking, Jim Welch,Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 
Treatment of Calf Scours, Pat White,D.V.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 
Fly Strike and Pinkeye, Jim Welch,Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 
Control and Restraint, Ted Millen,D.V.M.,Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 
Fencing and Handling Facilities, Pat White,D.V.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 
Shelter, Pat White,D.V.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 
Trucking Highland Cattle, Dick LeClar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 

MARKETING AND PROMOTION 

Farm Direct Marketing Meat, Alberta Agriculture Food and Rural Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 

FOREWORD 

This Highland Breeder’s Guide was developed to help owners of Highland cattle make a success of their 
enterprise. Highland cattle are special. They are cattle, however, with disease and management problems and 
nutritional requirements similar to other beef breeds. A motivated Highland breeder needs to develop a network 
of information sources including successful Highland producers, a good veterinarian, beef extension specialists, 
animal husbandry books and other written information. There is also no substitute for intense management effort 
and observation. 

Photo Credits: Jacquelyn Becker Chotkowski, John Chotkowski, David Eshbach, William Lipsey & Pat White 


BREED CHARACTERISTICS 
HIGHLAND BREED CHARACTERISTICS


Angus Mackay 

What are Highland Breed Characteristics? 

I am of the opinion that they can and should be divided into two distinct categories. 

The first and most important category is for characteristics that have evolved over many hundreds of years: 
hardiness and longevity. Neither of these are mentioned in the Breed Standard, published in 1885 in the first 
Highland cattle herd book of Scotland. 

The second category is for fashionable characteristics, which man has created over many years through the use of 
genetic modifications. These characteristics are adequately described in the Breed Standards, already referred to above. 
Most of these characteristics can be used to describe any breed of beef cattle. 

In order to fully appreciate what I consider to be the Highland breed’s unique characteristics of hardiness and 
longevity, you must first of all consider the land, climate and conditions (the habitat) in which the Highland breed 
evolved over many centuries. 

The Highlands of Scotland are the most northern and inhospitable part of the British Isles, as up until 200 years 
ago there were few roads, no bridges over rivers and the only way to travel was on foot or by boat around an equally 
dangerous and inhospitable coast line. 

This is the land the Romans came to conquer, saw the Grampian mountains and decided to go home or at least back 
to England’s green and pleasant land. 

This is also the land that the Vikings sailed around the coast of, where they occasionally landed to rape and plunder! 
It was only after their defeat at the Battle of Largs in 1263 that King Haakon of Norway on his way home and refusing 
to leave empty-ended, stole 300 cattle from the Island of Islay. Suffice to say, just like the Romans they did not stay. 

So who were the people who lived in this remote and inhospitable land? They were hardy-like warriors, rearing 
cattle as best they could in conditions where only the very hardiest could survive. They utilized to the best advantage 
lush summer pastures in the high mountains for milk and cheese production and struggled through the long harsh 
winter to keep as many cattle alive as possible, even though on occasion, they would have to bleed their cattle and use 
the blood to supplement the family’s meager rations of oatmeal. They lived in very close proximity to their cattle and 
in the winter, they shared the same low turf roof dwelling, known as “Black House”. There the temperament of the cattle 
would never have been a problem and where these people developed an understanding of cattle that we in the twenty-
first century could never hope to attain. It was in an environment such as this that hardiness evolved in the cattle that 
became known as the Highland breed. 

It was hardy Highland cattle that first brought commerce to the Highlands of Scotland. Arguably, it could be said 
that cattle brought about the end of the clan system and the traditional Scottish way of life. 

There are accounts of the droving trade in Highland cattle as early as 1359 and this was to continue well into the 
nineteenth century. This highly lucrative and dangerous trade was at its height from 1760 to 1820. At that time, tens 
of thousands of 2 - 3 year old cattle left the Highlands and Islands throughout the autumn and made their long and 
treacherous journey south to the great cattle fayres in Muir of Ord in the northeast Highlands. From there, they went 
on, gathering in numbers, to the major fayres in the towns of Crieff and Falkirk in the southern Highlands and then 
travelled a further 300 miles south, across the border to be fattened in the lush pastures of England. Eventually, these 
cattle were sold as prime beef in ever expanding cities such as Manchester and London. 

Good feet and legs were essential as the cattle were expected to travel between ten and fifteen miles in one day over 
the roughest terrain and even, on occasion, swim rivers that had swollen after days of torrential rain. The drovers were 
every bit as hardy as the cattle under their care. They slept with their droves at night just in case they should stray or 
be stolen in the dead of night by the likes of Rob Roy MacGregor or the Stewarts of Ardvorlich, to name but a few. They 
also drove the hardest of bargains when selling their cattle to English dealers at the annual fayres. 

The drover’s descendants helped to establish the great cattle trails of the western United States, through the long 
journeys to the rail heads during the nineteenth century, at a time when only the very toughest men and cattle would 
survive. One of the earliest pioneers in America to develop commercial cattle droving was called John Chisholm whose 
forefathers drove cattle from the Isle of Skye to the Lowlands. 

With regard to longevity, I personally believe that three hundred years ago all cattle would have had much longer 
productive lives, as they were allowed to develop at a more natural rate. It was only when livestock improvers began 
to select local types of cattle for particular traits, whether for beef or milk production, that longevity became affected. 


Hardiness was also affected following rigorous selection and line breeding in the quest to develop, what we now 
know to be Scottish beef breeds, such as the Aberdeen Angus, Beef Shorthorn and Galloway. While at the same time, 
in the south west of Scotland, the Ayrshire breed evolved purely for milk production. 

In order to encourage the further development and improvement of the various breeds of cattle, sheep and horses, 
the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland awarded prizes at local agricultural shows for improved livestock. 
As early as 1789, judges at district shows were told to pay particular attention to the shape of bulls and not their size, 
in order, as they put it, “to encourage true breeding”. 

In 1840, the Lorn Agricultural Society, situated at the heart of ‘Highland Cattle Country’ applied the following 

judging points: 
Carriage 25 points 
Back and Ribs 20 points 
Head and Horns 15 points 
Hind Quarters 15 points 
Hair 10 points 
Neck 5 points 
Legs 5 points 
Size 5 points 

And so began the development of the Highland breed as we know it today. 

The show ring was to dictate the supposed ideal type, depending on the fashion at the time. With the formation of 
the Highland Cattle Society in 1884 and the publication of the first herd book the following year, that set out breed 
standards, which I believe to be merely a guide to standardizing a breed that was as diverse in size and conformation 
as it was in colour. However, thankfully they did not try to standardise colour. 

How important are breed characteristics? Some of them were developed in order to identify more easily one 
breed from another - such as black and polled in the Aberdeen Angus and the distinctive white face of the Hereford 
breed. 

When it comes to the Highland breed, it usually starts with the head, as no other domesticated cattle breed is quite 
like it - with their open wide horns and long flowing hair they are truly majestic. Just as the Kings of Old would wear 
on their heads diamond studded crowns of grand proportions to signify their importance and enhance their stature, 
which more often than not left much to be desired through generations of inbreeding, the animal with the grandest and 
most majestic head would usually find itself at the top of the line in any show ring and as most pedigree breeders will 
tell you, the only way to assess true breeding is to look at the head. If this is so, then all cattle breeders must ask 
themselves if showing is having a harmful effect on cattle breeding? How should the judge evaluate the Highland 
breed’s unique characteristics? 

Hardiness is impossible to judge visually in the show ring as it takes many years of practical experience to truly 
evaluate cattle. 

When it comes to longevity there are several fundamental factors that should be taken into account, which can be 
visually assessed. If your cattle are to have long productive and profitable lives, good feet are essential, as good 
structure and conformation can only be built on sound, well-shaped feet. 

When assessing breeding cattle, more attention should be paid to udder construction and teat size. 

Young bulls should display early and even testicular development as all of the above will help to ensure a long 
productive life. 

Personally, I consider that the breed standards, as written in 1885, were meant as a guide. It was never meant to 
be the bible of good Highland cattle breeding. If that was so, then the breed should be kept in a museum! 

We, as Highland cattle breeders of today, have a duty to the breed and to the producers of tomorrow. We must allow 
the most versatile of all beef breeds to continue to evolve and improve, thus ensuring its survival. 

Finally the best advice I can give you is to lay down your herd book, switch off your computer, leave your mobile 
phone at home and spend an hour or two amongst your cattle quietly… and allow the hand of nature to be your guide 
in discovering the Highland breed characteristics. 


GENETICS AND SELECTION 
STRUCTURAL CORRECTNESS
IN BEEF CATTLE


Harlan Ritchie, Ph.D. & Peter Anderson, Ph.D. 

Introduction 

A minimum degree of structural correctness is needed in all species of animals. However, it assumes greater 
importance in some classes of livestock than in others. For example, it is of utmost importance in the horse because its 
activity (racing, working cattle, draft, etc.) generally places a greater degree of stress on the skeleton than is the case 
with other species. In beef cattle, structural correctness is of greater importance in the bull for several reasons: (1) he 
is heavier than the female; (2) in range country, he must travel relatively long distances to cover cows in heat; (3) he 
transmits his structural traits to his daughters who will eventually become herd replacements (unless he is in a 
terminal sire breeding program). Structural correctness is also important in the female for several reasons: (1) it 
contributes to longevity, a trait which recent research at Montana and MARC (Kress et al., 1988) has shown to be highly 
related to cow herd efficiency; (2) working on cows with structural problems is costly in terms of time and money; (3) 
unsound cows transmit problems to their progeny just like bulls, although they obviously do not have the impact on the 
herd that a heavily used sire does. 

Structural soundness is not an all-or-none proposition. These traits usually occur in varying degrees from slight to 
severe. In most traits, there is a “range of acceptability” within which the animal can function efficiently. Furthermore, 
some structural defects are more apt to impair function than are others. Developing a feel for this range of acceptability, 
as well as knowing which defects are most serious, is something that livestock breeders and judges should strive for. A 
common mistake made by some beginning judges is to overreact and place too much emphasis on relatively minor faults 
in structure. It should be remembered that beef cattle are raised to produce meat, not to compete at the race track with 
the Thoroughbred! Conversely, overlooking serious defects in structure is just as much a problem. 

Most structural defects are heritable to some degree and should be particularly discriminated against in maternal 
and general purpose breed bulls whose daughters will be kept for replacements. On the other hand, certain problems 
can be tolerated in bulls of terminal sire breeds if they do not affect longevity or the ability to mate. 

The purpose of this paper is to characterize the structural problems that are most commonly encountered in beef 
production and to discuss their importance and relationship with function. The World Simmental Federation (WSF) has 
developed ranges of acceptability for a number of structural traits. Although their guidelines may not be totally 
applicable to all breeds in all environments, they will be referred to in this paper because they represent a conscientious 
and united effort on the part of a large association of breeders to address the subject of structural correctness. 

Skeletal Structure 

In order to consider correct structure, one should be familiar with the bovine skeleton. The drawing on the following 
page lists the primary bones and joints that are implicated in structural soundness, including their Latin and common 
names. A discussion of skeletal structure will be presented in the sections to follow. 

Feet and Pasterns 

In general, the feet and pasterns of a sound animal should exhibit the following characteristics: 

1. Normal rate of hoof growth. 
2. Adequate size (area) of foot. 
3. Even-sized claws (toes). 
4. Toes held together and not spread. 
5. Adequate depth of heel. 
6. Correct slope to pastern and foot as viewed from the side. 
7. Relatively straight as viewed from the front. 
8. Hard, dense hoof.
Defects of the feet and pastern are covered in the following sections.

BOVINE SKELETON 

VERTEBRAL COLUMN 

1. Neck - Cervical Vertebrae (7) 
2. Back & Shoulder - Thoracic Vertebrae (13) 
3. Loin - Lumbar Vertebrae (6) 
4. Rump - Sacral Vertebrae (5) 
5. Tail - Coccygeal Vertebrae (18-20) 
6. BREAST BONE - STERNUM (7 STERNEBRAE) 
17. Ribs (13) Attached to Thoracic Vertebrae 
FORELEG -THORACIC LIMB 

7. Shoulder Blade - Scapula 
8. Point of Shoulder - Shoulder Joint 
9. Arm - Humerus 
10. Elbow Joint 
11. Forearm - Radius & Ulna 
12. Knee - Carpus (6 bones) 
13. Cannon - Metacarpals HIND LEG - PELVIC LIMB 25. Gaskin - Tibia, Fibula 
14. Ankle - Fetlock Joint 18. Hip - Tuber Coxae 26. Hock - Tarsus (5) 
15. Pastern - 1st & 2nd Phalanx 19. Rump - Pelvis 27. Cannon - Metatarsals
16. Foot - 3rd Phalanx, Pedal or Coffin Bone 20. Pin Bones - Tuber Ischii 28. Long Pastern - 1st Phalanx 
21. Hip Joint 29. Short Pastern - 2nd Phalanx 
22. Thigh - Femur 30. Coffin or Pedal or 3rd Phalanx 
23. Patella 
24. Stifle Joint 
Excessive Hoof Growth (Beak Claw) 

Excessive hoof growth, referred to in many countries as “beak claw”, is a common defect in cattle. Brinks 
et al. (1979) reported hoof growth to be a highly heritable trait, although it is well-known that 
management factors can play a large role in accentuating the problem. For example, full-feeding of 
high energy grain - such as corn, barley and wheat - can lead to various degrees of founder which in 
turn results in excessive hoof growth. Furthermore, stabled cattle are more apt to show excessive hoof 
growth than those on pasture or range country. 

Beak claw can also develop with sickled hind legs. This incorrect position of the hind limb causes less wear on the 
front of the foot, resulting in turned up toes and the formation of the so-called “beak”. This causes undue wear on the 
hind part of the foot and heel. Also, the corium, which lies underneath the horny wall of the foot is squeezed, resulting 
in overgrowth. 

Rolled (Corkscrew) Claws 

This condition can occur on either end, although it is more common on the hind limb. In this defect, 
the outer sidewall of the outside claw overgrows the sole. Putrefaction of the horn may develop in the 
formed niches. Rolled claws are often associated with bowed legs because more weight is brought to bear 
on the outside of the foot, causing the outside claw to roll under. 


Scissor (Curled) Claws 

This defect is usually associated with cattle that are knock-kneed and splay-footed. The outside claw 
which carries less weight tends to recess. The point of the inside claw grows outward and upward and 
“curls” in front of the point of the outside claw. Similar to the corkscrew claw, the sidewall of the inside 
claw rolls under, which squeezes the corium causing further overgrowth. 

Small Feet 


Small feet tend to be associated with the larger breeds and also with steep pasterns and straight hocks. Small feet 
have to bear a greater weight load per area resulting in a disproportionate relationship between body mass and foot 
size, which causes greater abrasion of the sole. There is also reduced blood circulation in the corium which can 
eventually lead to a regression of tissue. In severe cases in large bulls, the feet can no longer carry the weight and the 
bull must be culled. In South Africa, Massman (1986) reported that small feet is the biggest single foot problem in 
Simmental cattle. Schneller (1984) has suggested that normal dimensions of the claws of cattle weighing 1100 to 1200 
lbs. should be 11-13 x 5-6 centimeters (55 to 78 sq. cm.). 


GENETICS AND SELECTION 
Uneven Claw Size 

Ideally, the two claws should be close to the same size, although slight irregularities in size are of little or no 
concern. 

Spread Toes (Splayed Toes) 

Spread or splayed toes result from a weakness of the tendons between the toes. The claws are pushed 
apart which stresses the soft tissue, leading to cracks which may become inflamed. Interdigital granuloma 
(corns) may also be formed. Sieber et al. (1986) reported splayed toes to be moderately heritable. 

Steep Pasterns and Weak Pasterns 


Steep pasterns place stress on the skeleton because the shock absorbing ability of the front limb is reduced. This is 
generally considered to be a more serious defect in all species of livestock than slightly weak or “soft” pasterns. Based 
upon Swiss and German research as well as a 1983 survey of 19 member countries, the World Simmental Federation 
(WSF) established guidelines for several structural traits. The drawing below suggests that a slope of 54º is considered 
to be average (x), “normal” or “ideal”. The notation, x + s, represents the average + one standard deviation, a range 
within which 68% of the animals are found in a normally distributed population. As shown below, this range for the 
pastern slope would be 35º to 73º. The notation, “HB”, together with the dotted line, indicates the suggested limit for 
acceptance into the herd book. The range of acceptability for pastern slope was determined to be from 35º to 75º. 

STEEP PASTERN 
54º 73º 75º 80º 
Normal X+S HB 
54º 35º HB 30º 25º 20º 
Normal X-S 
WEAK PASTERN 
Shallow Heels 

As shown in the figure on the following page, the WSF used the ratio of length of toe to depth of heel to establish 
guidelines for the latter trait. For the front limb, the normal or ideal ratio is 1.7 and the acceptable limit is 3.5. For the 
hind limb, the ideal is 1.9 and the acceptable limit is 3.5. 

Splay-Footed (Toed-Out) 

WSF guidelines for the splay-footed condition are shown on the following page. This defect is usually associated 
with knock knees. An angle of 10º is considered normal or ideal, and the acceptable limit was set at 40º. However, some 
countries, notably Australia, felt that 30º should be the maximum tolerable angle. 

Pigeon-Toed (Toed-In) 

The pigeon-toed condition is not as common as the splay-footed defect. However, it can be a more serious problem 
when it becomes extreme. It is usually associated with a base narrow stance and uneven weight distribution on the 
outside claw. When pigeon-toed animals move, they often wingout or “roll” on their front end. 

Cracked Hooves 

Cracked hooves can result in lameness that may require treatment. It is usually not observed in younger cattle 
unless they have been foundered. 


SHALLOW HEEL 
FORE HEEL 
a/b = 1.7 2.5 3.0 3.5 HB 4.0 
HIND HEEL 
a/b = 1.9 2.8 3.0 3.5 HB 4.0 
Turned out front end: splay-footed and knock-need (WSF) 
10º 20º 30º 40º 50º 
Normal HB 
a 
b 
a 
b 
Soft Hooves 

Dense, tough feet wear better than porous, soft feet. Many livestock breeders believe that dark hooves are tougher 
than light-colored hooves. However, research by Pflug (1978) showed that pigmentation is not related to density. He 
reported that traits such as moisture content and microstructure (number and diameter of tubules) of the horny wall 
of the hoof are the primary factors affecting strength. 

Summary of Foot Problems 

If any of the foot defects discussed above are severe enough in a yearling animal to prevent the toes from making 
solid contact with the ground and wearing normally, he may experience real problems later on. If they are only slight 
to moderate, he should perform satisfactorily (Blockey 1981). 

In a summary of South African Simmental cattle, Massman (1986) reported that foot and pastern problems 
accounted for 6% of the cattle that were rejected by inspectors for registration in the herd book. 


GENETICS AND SELECTION 
THE HIND & FORE LIMBS


The Hind Limb 

The hind limb of the ideal animal should exhibit the following characteristics: 

1. Acceptable set to the hock, as viewed from the side. 
2. Straight hind legs, as viewed from the rear. 
In South African Simmental herds, hind leg problems are the 
biggest single reason (15%) for the rejection from the herd book 
(Massman, 1986). Common defects of the hind limb are 
discussed in the following sections. 

Post-Legged (Straight Hocks) 

The post-legged condition is perhaps the most serious 
skeletal defect in beef cattle, especially in bulls. Post hind legs 
are often associated with steep pasterns. In severe cases, the 
animal is apt to become arthritic in any one or all of the joints of 
the hind limb - hock, stifle or hip (Blockey, 1981). 

In a study on the pathogenetic relationship between straight 
hocks and the genetic defect, spastic paresis, Rieck & Leipold 
(1964) measured the hock angle of over 200 cattle. The average 
angle was 143º. Animals affected with spastic paresis showed an 
angle in excess of 158º. As a result of this and other research, the 
WSF developed guidelines for the angle of the hock joint. The 
range of acceptability was from 120º to 155º, with an ideal of 
140º. In contrast, the ideal hock joint angle for the horse is 175º, 
which would be much too straight for the bovine. 

Results of inadequate angulation: posty hind legs, 
puffy hocks, steep pasterns, steep shoulder, buck knees 
and small feet. 
Sickle-Hocked 

The sickle-hocked condition is a serious problem if it reaches extreme proportions, especially when associated with 
weak hind pasterns. Severe sickle hocks have been reported to impair the serving capacity of bulls (Blockey, 1981). 

Cow-Hocked 

The cow-hocked condition is relatively common but seldom has a detrimental effect on function. In extreme cases, 
it can result in a long, flat outside claw on the hind feet. 

Bow-Legged 

The bow-legged condition is not as common as cow hocks but is more serious than the latter. It is associated with a 
base narrow stance and a disproportionate amount of weight on the outside claw, often resulting in rolled or corkscrew 
claw. Extreme cases may result in puffy hocks and lameness. 

Front Limb 

A steep shoulder reduces the shock absorbing ability of the front limb. It may also cause a short choppy stride and 
reduce the animal’s ability to move long distances in extensive range country. When combined with buck knees and 
steep pasterns, the problem becomes more serious. Guidelines for the slope of the shoulder have not been established 
in cattle. In the horse, the ideal slope appears to be about 51º. The shoulder of the bovine should probably be no steeper 
than that of a horse. 

Buck-Kneed (Over at the Knees) 

A correct animal’s knee should be straight up and down and in line with the forearm and cannon. A knee that 
pitches forward of a line perpendicular to the ground is said to be buck-kneed. This is a very minor defect that has little 
or no effect on function. In fact, in animals confined to concrete feedlots, calf knees may possibly work to their advantage 
because it could have a cushioning effect and thereby reduce stress on the front limbs. 


Knock-Kneed 

This is a common defect in many populations of cattle. It is usually associated with the splay-footed condition which 
was discussed before. A straight line is considered normal. The maximum tolerable deviation is a matter of debate. 

Bow-Legged 

This is not as common as knock-knees but is probably a more serious defect when it does occur. It is sometimes 
associated with a condition in which the animal is out at the elbow or “wing-shouldered”. Bow-legged animals are often 
base narrow, pigeon toed and “roll” in front when they walk. 

Wing-Shouldered 

This is not a common problem in beef cattle but is observed occasionally, especially in situations where the animal 
is severely bow-legged in front. This combination can severely impair function and longevity. 

Coarse, Open Shoulders 

Excessive coarseness and/or openness through the shoulders is not considered desirable, particularly in the females 
because it is believed to run contrary to a feminine appearance. Although it has not been well documented by research, 
it is generally believed that extreme coarseness in bulls may increase the incidence of dystocia in their calves. 

COW HOCKS 
Normal HB 
POSTLEGGED 
SICKLED 
140º 145º 
140º 135º 130º 125º 120º 115º 110º 
150º 155º 160º 165º 170º 
X Normal X-S HB 
X Normal X+S HB 

GENETICS AND SELECTION 
THE TOPLINE,HEAD,SHEATH,PREPUCE
AND MAMMARY SYSTEM


The Topline 

Cattle breeders in North America prefer a topline (spinal column) that has the following appearance: 

1. As viewed from the side, a strong, level back, loin and rump and a flat tailhead. 
2. As viewed from behind, a square rump with wide pinbones. 
In South Africa and several other countries, researchers and breeders take issue with North Americans on their 
evaluation of the topline. 

Rump and Tailhead 

As noted above, the majority of North American cattle breeders and judges prefer a flat, level, square rump. 
However, South African animal scientists (Maree, 1977; McFarlane, 1976) content that a slightly sloping rump, whereby 
the pinbones are lower than the hipbones, is conducive to greater ease of calving. They have concluded that, as you 
reduce the vertical opening the cow has for calving; that is, you lessen the distance between the pelvic floor and the base 
of the tail. Some North Americans have accepted this concept but many others have not. 

A tailhead that is set too far up into the rump is considered undesirable. In females, this condition is sometimes 
associated with a vulva that slants forward, which is not desirable from a hygienic and/or fertility standpoint. 

Loin and Back 

It had been suggested by South African scientists that weakness in the spine, just ahead of the hip, will cause 
difficulty in the birth of the fetus. This defect, coupled with high pinbones, may compound the calving problem. It would 
appear that nearly all breeders can agree that strength in this area (loin) is desirable. North Americans insist on a 
strong, straight spinal column all the way from the hipbones to the top of the shoulder. A weak or sagging back is more 
aesthetic than functional, however. 

Inter-Relationships Between Skeletal Defects 

Feet, pasterns and legs cannot be separated. They all carry weight and it is important for that weight to be evenly 
distributed. The feet and pasterns tend to be the primary shock absorbers. If they fail to function properly, structures 
higher up may be affected. The reverse is also possible. If something is wrong with the leg or shoulder structure, the 
load sharing is distributed. What is thought to be a foot problem may actually be a leg problem and visa versa. 

Inadequate Joint Angulation 

As suggested above, a number of skeletal problems are inter-related. The most serious problems are those that arise 
from too little angulation of the skeleton. For example, a post legged animal will often be too straight in the shoulder 
and knee and too steep in the pasterns. Such an animal will often move very stiffly. There are two reasons for this. 

First, the animal’s structure will not permit a long free stride. When the shoulder is too straight, the front leg cannot 
reach far enough to take a long step. Moreover, neither the knee nor the hock will allow a long reach and the steep 
pasterns will not permit a long follow-through. The result is a very short choppy stride. 

Secondly, movement is often painful for animals with inadequate angulation. When the joints are too straight, they 
must absorb a disproportional amount of the stress of a step down. With proper angulation, stress is distributed more 
evenly over the bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles. In the animal that is extremely straight, stress on the joints can 
become very severe. Flexing joints can be painful and he will take short strides to minimize the pain. The animal is 
predisposed to early arthritis and reduced longevity in the herd. 

Selection for extreme height and straight legs may have led us into a greater incidence of the correlated structural 
problems (Long, 1988; Anderson and Ritchie, 1988). Bulls exhibiting these characteristics to an extreme degree may sire 
market progeny which will not hold up under confined feedlot conditions. If daughters of these bulls are kept for 
replacements, their life in the herd may be shortened if they inherit these traits. 

Over-Angulation 

On the other side of the coin, extreme over-angulation of the joints (sickle-hocked, weak pasterns, etc.) can result in 
abnormal hoof growth and reduce the ability to cover ground. However, the problems associated with these defects are 
seldom as severe as those related to the lack of angulation. The figure below represents the three kinds of skeletal 
structure: (1) too much angulation; (2) correct angulation; and (3) not enough angulation. 


Bowed Legs, Base Narrow, etc. 

It should be obvious from the previous sections that the following defects are often inter-related.
1.On the hind limb; bowed hocks, base narrow stance and rolled or corkscrew outside claws.
2.On the front limb; bowed legs, base narrow stance, pigeon-toed and “rolling” at the walk; such animals may also open


up at the elbows. 

The Head 

Different breeds have different head characteristics that are primarily aesthetic and not necessarily related to 
function. However, certain defects of the eyes and the jaw can be related to function. 

The Eyes 

Pigmentation of the eyelid and the skin around the eye is a desirable trait because research has indicated that 
cattle with no pigmentation are more predisposed to cancer eye. Pigmentation is a moderately heritable trait (0.3 to 
0.4) and will respond to selection. 

In regions where there is a great deal of sunlight and a high incidence of cancer eye, there is a functional advantage 
for animals who exhibit a strong orbital ridge or eyebrow (“hooded eye”), protecting the eye against ultraviolet rays. 
Cattle with extremely open eyes (“pop eyes”) are more susceptible to eye problems than those with a hooded eye. 

The Jaw 

It is considered important for cattle that must forage in extensive range country to have a strong, deep jaw. Weak-
jawed cattle are generally discriminated against. 

Perhaps more importantly, the upper and lower jaws should be of equal length so that the incisor teeth in the lower 
jaw squarely meet the dental pad in the upper jaw. If not, foraging ability may be reduced. The most common defect of 
this type is “parrot mouth”, whereby the upper jaw is longer (over-shot) than the lower jaw. 

The Sheath and Prepuce 

An extremely heavy, funnel-shaped sheath and prepuce is a detriment to bulls that have a lot of ground to cover in 
rough country. Obviously, this is more likely to be a problem for those breeds with Brahman influence. Seedstock 
producers in these breeds are placing strong selection pressure against sheath problems. 

The Mammary System 

The two most common problems observed in the mammary system of beef cows are: (1) over-sized and/or balloon 
teats; and (2) weak, pendulous udders. Numerous research studies have indicated that these traits are low to 
moderately heritable (0.2 to 0.3). Therefore, over time, they will respond to selection. 

The American Polled Hereford Association (Gibb, 1984) has adopted the udder scoring system based on teat size 
and udder suspension. AHCA has also adopted these guidelines. 

Too Much Angulation Correct Angulation Not Enough Angulation - Stilted 
Degrees of Angulation of Joints in the Bovine Skeleton 

GENETICS AND SELECTION 
Fertility Indicators 
Bulls 

The importance of scrotal circumference as an indicator of fertility is very well documented by research. At 1 year 
of age for most breeds of bulls, the bare minimum acceptable scrotal circumference is 30 centimeters (preferable 32-34 
cm). For Brahman bulls, the minimum may be 28 cm. at 1 year. 

Even though it is a purely subjective decision, cattlemen generally agree that feminine-appearing bulls should be 
discriminated against. 

Females 

Obviously, calving records are the best indication of fertility in the producing cow. In virgin heifers, it is generally 
agreed that coarse, masculine females should be discriminated against, although there is little or no research data to 
support this approach. Like many traits, there is quite likely a reasonably wide range of acceptability. Extremely small 
external genitalia (vulva) should be strongly discriminated against. 

Summary 

It should be obvious by now that there are numerous structural traits which can have varying degrees of influence 
on how beef cattle function. The amount of emphasis to be placed on them depends largely upon the environment (feed 
and other resources), the mating system and the marketplace. 

Teat Size 9 7 5 3 1 
Suspension 
Very Small Small Intermediate Large Very Large 
Very Tight Tight Intermediate Pendulous Very Pendulous 
Scoring System for Teat Size and Udder Suspension 

GENETICS 101


Scott Barao, Ph.D. 

Over the years, I have noticed that breeding time brings with it a number of questions related to genetics and 
selection as beef producers buy bulls and/or select semen for use in their cow herd. The basis for most of the 
questions I get is a general desire to improve herd performance and make positive genetic change. The following 
information should help clarify the issues related to genetic change and help beef producers set realistic expectations 
for their breeding and selection program. 
Genetic change is dependent upon four major factors as described in the following formula: 

Genetic 
Change 
= 
Accuracy 
of 
Selection 
X Selection 
Intensity 
X Genetic 
Variation 
Generation Interval 

Accuracy of Selection: Refers to our ability to select animals that truly are genetically superior for a given trait. It 
is dependent upon the use of consistent and accurate genetic evaluation techniques. 

Selection Intensity: Is dependent upon the proportion of animals kept as parents for the next generation. Intensity 
also includes the superiority of those animals compared to the genetic average of the overall unselected population. 
Refers to the relative differences among animals that are controlled by genetic factors. It is measured as the heritability 
of the trait. 

Genetic Variation: A common phenomenon, manifesting itself as dominant and recessive genetic traits. 

Generation Interval: Is the average age of a parent when the offspring is born. 

To achieve rapid genetic change, accuracy of selection must be high and parents must be genetically superior when 
compared to the average population. In addition, more progress will be achieved with more highly heritable traits and 
shorter generation intervals. By keeping these four factors in mind, genetic progress can be maximized. 

Genetic Terms 

In addition to understanding the components of “Genetic Change,” producers must also have a working knowledge 
of some important genetic terms. 

Cell -All animals are made up of thousands of cells. Genetic material is located in the nucleus of each body cell. 
Chromosomes are the structures within the nucleus that contain the genes. Genes are hereditary units that determine 
a portion of the animal’s appearance, performance, behavior and other characteristics. 

Chromosome - In beef cattle, 30 pairs of chromosomes are located in each cell’s nucleus. The number of chromosomes 
varies among animals. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. 

Genes - Genes are hereditary units that influence the expression of specific traits. 

Allele -An allele is one component of the gene pair which is located at a given locus or position on the chromosome. 

Locus -The locus is the region of the chromosome where a particular gene is located. 

DNA - Chromosomes are chemically composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is a nucleic acid arranged in a 
double helical structure. 


GENETICS AND SELECTION 
Mendelian Segregation - Sperm and eggs are created by a process called meiosis or cell division. The number of 
chromosomes in the sperm and egg are half of that found in all other cells. One chromosome of each pair is passed to the 
sperm or egg. A random sample of one allele from each locus is found in the sperm and eggs. The sperm and egg unite 
to form a zygote or fertilized egg. The resulting zygote contains an equal number of chromosomes from each parent. 

Mendelian segregation is the random process which occurs during meiosis and determines which allele of each gene 

is contained in a given sperm or egg. Variation among individuals, including offspring of a given animal, results from 

this process. 

Phenotype - The phenotype of the cow is what you observe or measure. It is the individual’s actual performance such 
as a 205 day weaning weight or yearling weight. 

Genotype -The genotype is the actual genes that the animal possesses for a given trait. In qualitative traits, the 
genotype identifies the exact alleles that an animal has for a specific trait. In quantitative traits, the genotype is 
expressed as the breeding value, which is an accumulation of the effects of all genes. 

Dominant-Recessive - At each locus there are two alleles for a specific trait, one from each parent. In some cases, one 
allele is dominant over the other allele in determining the trait. For example, a single gene controls coat color in Angus 
cattle. The black gene is dominant and the red gene is recessive. Genes are expressed as “B” (big B) for the dominant 
black gene and “b” (little b) for the recessive red gene. The combination from the parents will determine if the offspring 
is black or red. 

The three possible genotypes for coat color are: BB, Bb and bb; with one gene coming from each parent. Since B is 

dominant over b, the presence of at least one B allele results in black coat color. Red coat color is only possible with bb 

genotype. 

Differences exist among species. In Shorthorn cattle, coat color is expressed differently for each of the three possible 

genotypes: RR - red, Rr - roan (red and white mix) and rr - white. No dominance is present between the red and white 

alleles. Therefore, in the Rr genotype, the animal is a mix of the two colors. 

Heterozygous - An animal is heterozygous for a certain gene when the two alleles at a given locus are not the same. 
For example, an Angus coat color gene may be the heterozygous combination, Bb. The animal carries one gene for red 
coat color and one gene for black. 

Homozygous -An animal is homozygous for a certain gene when both alleles at a given locus are the same. For 
example, if an Angus coat color gene is BB, it is homozygous for black coat color. A Red Angus is homozygous with a 
genotype of bb. 

Qualitative Traits - Qualitative traits are generally controlled by one pair of genes. In addition, a given genotype 
(genetic make-up) will generally result in the same phenotype (actual expression of trait). Examples of qualitative 
traits are sex, hair color and horns. Qualitative traits also include undesirable recessive traits such as Mule-Foot 
(Syndactylism). 

Quantitative Traits - Quantitative traits are controlled by many genes, with each gene generally having a relatively 
small influence on the expression of the trait. Collectively, these genes can have large effects. One such example is milk 
production. These traits can be significantly influenced by the environment. In recent research in gene mapping, there 
is now evidence that several “major” genes may have larger effects on traits than do most of the genes influencing the 
trait. 

Environment -The environment that an animal lives in has a large influence on production as well as on other 
quantitative traits. In fact, environment contributes more to the difference among cows’ production than does genetics. 
By many estimates, 75% of the difference among cows’ production is attributed to environment, while only 25% is based 
on genetics. 

Environmental Variance - Environmental variance is the differences in the performance of animals that are caused 
by environmental effects. Genetic evaluations are designed to account for differences in production due to 
environmental variance. 

Selection Intensity - Selection intensity measures the relative superiority of the group of animals allowed to 
reproduce. The selection intensity in bulls is high because fewer bulls are needed in relation to the base cowherd. In 
cows, however, it is low because producers usually need to keep about 75% of their females to produce herd 
replacements. Higher selection intensity results in more rapid genetic improvement. 


Heritability - Heritability is the proportion of variation in a trait that is due to genetic factors. Heritabilities range 
from 0.0 to 1.0 (or zero to 100%). A higher number means the trait is more heritable. By selecting for a high heritability 
trait, faster genetic progress will be made. Low heritability, less than .10, does not offer much opportunity for rapid 
improvement in that trait. 

Generation Interval - The average age of a parent when offspring are born is the generation interval. Genetic change 
increases when the generation interval decreases. 

Inbreeding - Inbreeding occurs when two animals that are more closely related than the average population are 
mated. One form of inbreeding, line breeding, occurs when progeny are repeatedly mated to ancestors or close relatives. 
A goal of inbreeding is to increase the frequency of the good genes that are found in the common ancestor. 

Several unwanted effects of inbreeding may also occur. Since homozygosity increases, a greater probability of 
having a homozygous recessive condition for undesirable qualitative traits exists. This concentration of undesirable 
genes may reduce health, vigor and growth and increase calf mortality. Production and reproduction are also negatively 
affected. 

Crossbreeding - Crossbreeding occurs when two purebreds from different breeds are mated. Its purpose is to produce 
a generation that will have greater performance than expected, considering the transmitting abilities of the parents. 
Crossbreeding generally increases health, vigor and reproductive performance. 

Variation - Variation or differences in genetic merit, exists in all animals because of the random sampling of alleles 
during mendelian segregation. 

By graphing the genetic merit or actual performance of all animals in a population, one would observe a normal 
distribution or a bell-shape curve. A normal distribution is centered on the average measurement for that particular 
trait. Approximately equal numbers of individuals (50%) are above and below the average. Standard deviation is the 
number that when added to and subtracted from the population average, gives a range that includes about two-thirds 
of the population. 

As you consider this brief but fundamental genetic lesson the take-home message should be clear. Breeding beef 
cattle is both an art and a science. It relies on both the careful, considerate and discriminating eye of the breeder and 
a detailed and thoughtful study of the performance characteristics of your herd and potential future breeding prospects. 
Above all, beef producers must focus on production traits that ultimately improve the profitability and sustainability 
of the beef operation and seek to improve these traits in a patient and strategic manner. 

Approximate Heritabilities of 
Some Common Traits in Beef Cattle Production


Heritability (%) 
Low Heritability Traits (0-20%) 
Calving Ease 10 
Conception Rate 5 
Medium Heritability Traits (20-40%) 
Birth Weight 40 
Weaning Weight 30 
Milk Yield 25 
High Heritability Traits (40-100%) 
Average Daily Gain (post-weaning) 45 
Yearling Weight 40 
Carcass Quality Grade 40 
Tenderness 50 
Scrotal Circumference 50 


NUTRITION 
GETTING STARTED GRAZING


Ohio State University Extension 

The ruminant animals we work with on today’s farms have practiced grazing since before mankind discovered 
fire. Animals herded together for protection from predators and rotationally grazed to find new sources of 
forage. Rotational grazing on farms perhaps had its beginning with staking the animals out in a different 
location each day. Recorded history of the benefits of rotational grazing goes back at least to the 1700’s. 

Today we use the term Management-Intensive Grazing (MIG) to describe the art of grazing based on scientific 
principles. MIG is one of the most promising concepts in agriculture today! It promises to lower costs while increasing 
productivity and has proven to be 
one of the most environmentally 
friendly agricultural enterprises 
currently practiced. 

Well managed grazing operations can produce returns per acre 
equal to or greater than row crop 
income, without government 
subsidies. Your net return per acre 
will depend on your debt load, 
value of your land, intensity of 
management and value and 
pounds of product sold per acre. 
While a beef cow may produce 100 
pounds of calf per acre, and it 
takes 5 acres to keep one cow, this 
produces gross income of $60 per 
acre if calves are worth 60 cents 
per pound. If you are able to keep 
a cow on 1.5 acres, using a more 
intensive system, a 500 pound 
weaned calf will produce 333 
pounds of calf per acre and $200 
gross income. Additional fence 
and water development costs will 
have to be covered but it is 
apparent that becoming more 
intensive has the potential to 
increase net return due to lower 
fixed costs in land. 

Cow and calf benefitting from MIG. 
Environmental Benefits of Management-lntensive Grazing 

The environmental benefits of Management-Intensive Grazing (MIG) include reduced soil erosion, improved air 
and water quality, better plant diversity, vigor and production, and improved fish and wildlife habitat. Improving 
grazing management results in more complete vegetative cover and improved soil structure, that allows a higher 
percentage of the rainfall to infiltrate the soil where it can be used for plant growth rather than running off where it 
can result in soil erosion and sedimentation problems. Many ecological processes accelerate including decomposition 
of manure. Nutrients can then be recycled several times during the growing season. This improves overall soil quality. 

Water quality improves as the pasture vegetation becomes more dense and the soil condition improves. A 
University of Wisconsin study showed that pastures are the best “crop” for reducing runoff, erosion and phosphorous 
pollution over any other land use. A similar study done by USDA-Agricultural Research Service, North Appalachian 
Experimental Watershed at Coshocton, Ohio revealed that both surface and ground water quality in a pastured 
watershed was just as good or better than water leaving an adjacent pristine wooded watershed. Pasture soils are a 
terrific biological filter to recover nutrients passing through the soil. Grass roots are active nearly year-round and 


thus can recover nutrients efficiently from pasture soils that may be lost from other crops. Pasture systems reduce the 
time livestock spend in confinement, thus reducing the concentrated manure control problems. Manure is more evenly 
distributed with MIG than with feedlots, where there are potential manure odor control concerns or on un-managed 
pastures where animals concentrate manure near shade or watering sites. 

Pasture, because of its permanent and diverse plant cover, provides increased shelter and food for wildlife as well 
as the grazing animal. Properly managed pastures can provide nesting habitat by delaying mowing and leaving 
adequate plant reserves for rapid growth. Most ground nesting birds and rabbits prefer the MIG system over a 
traditional pasture system. Research is showing that grazing animals can be used to manage the vegetation on stream 
banks to enhance fish populations. Studies done in Minnesota and Wisconsin have resulted in MIG becoming the 
recommended practice to manage stream banks on farms to control overgrowth and enhance fisheries. Fish numbers 
were 2 to 3 times higher where cattle grazed in a MIG system than where cattle were totally excluded from the stream. 

Management-Intensive Grazing provides management to preserve the important preferred forage species by 
improving plant nutrient distribution, plant health and plant vigor. 

Forage Species Selection for Pastures 

Seldom are more than four or five species needed in most pasture and hay land seedings. Prepackaged “shotgun 
mixtures” of many grasses and legumes usually have no advantage over simpler mixtures that are carefully designed 
by the producer to match specific grasses and legumes to the soil, climate and management conditions in the 
particular field to be planted. 

The Ohio Agronomy Guide has detailed information on selecting forage species. They are available from OSU 
Extension offices for a nominal fee. 

Time of Maturity. The species in a mixture should mature at about the same time in order to obtain palatable 
forage of good quality. If one species is to mature later than the other, it should be the grass component so that the 
legume can be grazed at the proper stage of development. 

Management Considerations. Grazing management can affect the compatibility of species in a mixture. Short 
growing species are generally more tolerant of frequent grazing than tall-growing species. Thus, tall-growing species 
are better suited to hay production and rotational grazing with adequate rest periods, while short-growing species 
such as Kentucky bluegrass and white clover are better suited for frequently or continuously grazed permanent 
pastures. 

Class of Livestock to Use the Forage. Some forages such as the warm season grasses provide adequate nutrients 
for beef animals but are not of high enough quality for producing dairy animals. Match the forage quality to the class 
of livestock. Consider having several forage mixtures in different pasture areas to provide animal harvested feed in 
as many months as possible to reduce your stored feed costs. 

Managing Plant Growth in Pastures 

Management-Intensive Grazing (MIG) matches the plants need for rest with the animals need for high quality 
forages. This section covers how to manage the plants to allow them quick regrowth, while harvesting them at peak 
quality. 

Energy Sources for Regrowth 

Plants get the energy needed for growth from the sun through a process called photosynthesis which occurs in 
green leaves. In the presence of sunlight, plants use carbon dioxide and water to manufacture carbohydrates (sugars) 
and oxygen. The carbohydrates supply energy for growth. The greater the leaf area present, the greater the amount 
of sunlight that is intercepted, with more carbohydrates produced. As the plant grows and leaf area increases, 
photosynthesis increases to the point where production of carbohydrates is greater than what is needed for plant 
growth. Surplus carbohydrates are stored in tissues at the base of plants, such as lower stems and roots. 

Plant regrowth after grazing depends on energy (carbohydrates). There are two primary sources of energy for 
regrowth: 1) carbohydrates that are produced by the remaining leaf area and 2) carbohydrate reserves stored in plant 
tissues at the base of the plant (e.g. orchard grass). Some plants depend more on residual leaf area for regrowth (e.g. 
white clover and birdsfoot trefoil) while others depend more on stored reserve carbohydrates (e.g. alfalfa and red 
clover). Grazing management affects both the level of reserve carbohydrates and the amount of leaf area present. 

Leafy Stage 

Advantages - Feed quality and palatability are very high.
Disadvantages - Reserve carbohydrate levels are low and regrowth will be slow especially in mid-summer. Additionally,
the plant is too short for rapid grazing. The animal will spend too much time grazing and may not be able to eat
adequate dry matter to sustain its production level.
Recommendation - Do not graze at this stage. Allow for a longer rest period.



NUTRITION 
Boot - Pre-bud Stage 

Advantages - Feed quality of the plants is high and carbohydrate reserves (energy for regrowth) have been restored.
Regrowth of these plants should be rapid which will allow for more rotations through the growing season.
Disadvantages - Total dry matter yield has not peaked.
Recommendation - Graze plants at this stage to benefit the plant with ample rest period and the animal with high
quality feed.


Heading - Bud Stage 

Advantages - Total dry matter yield is increasing. 
Disadvantages - Carbohydrate reserves are increasing but some of the energy is going into the seed and stem 
production, not the roots for rapid regrowth. Fiber and lignin is increasing in the plant which makes nutrients less 
available. 
Recommendation - As seed heads appear, speed up the grazing rotation to get ahead of the growth or set aside some 
paddocks for hay or silage harvest. A key is to harvest the set aside paddocks soon. This will keep them near the same 
maturity as the other paddocks during the next rotation. Plants that are allowed to reach maturity will regrow much 
slower. 

Bloom Stage 

Advantage - Dry matter yield has reached its maximum.
Disadvantages - Increasing lignin (undigestible cell wall) makes proteins, minerals and digestible fiber less available.
Tall plants are difficult for the animal to graze rapidly.
Recommendation - Try not to allow forages to mature to this stage. If they have, mechanically harvest them to allow
new growth to begin.


Remember - Animals should stay in paddocks no more than three days to prevent re-grazing of new 
growth. Attempt to have 2 to 4 inches of leaf remaining in the paddock after the animals are removed. 
This will increase the rate of regrowth of the forages and increase total production over the year. 

The Challenge 

It’s easy to see why grazing forages in the boot or pre-bud stage maintains quality and quantity of the plants. 
However, most forages don’t grow at the same rate throughout the year. Use weekly pasture walks to monitor the 
growth of all paddocks and determine if you need to speed up or slow down your rotation. 

Stay Flexible 

As you walk the paddocks, keep your mind open to options you have that maintain pastures productivity. These 
options include: changing the size of the paddock, changing the length of the grazing period for a paddock, changing 
the number of animals in a paddock, adding second grazers, adding supplemental feed, using annual forages, grazing 
hayfields during dry periods. Flexibility is a goal of successful graziers which allows them to manage most 
of the change that weather provides. 

Feeding Livestock on Pasture 
Nutritional Requirements 

A grazing system needs to meet the nutritional requirements of the livestock. Animals require water, energy, 
protein, vitamins and minerals. These nutrients are used to meet the requirements for reproduction, body growth, 
wool or hair growth, lactation and general body maintenance. Environmental conditions, such as hot and cold weather, 
can increase maintenance requirements. An animal's priorities for nutrition are maintenance, lactation, growth 
(young animals) and reproduction. Consequently, reproduction is the first to go and the last to return in cases of 
inadequate nutrition. 

Forage Quality and Intake 

Forage sources vary in nutrient content and nutrient availability (digestibility). As forage plants mature, energy 
availability and protein content decrease. Forage intake decreases as nutrient availability or digestibility decreases. 
Intake of forages accounts for over 75% of the differences observed in animal performance between various forages. 

Ideally, the livestock manager would like the forage plants to have a high leaf area compared to stems. Leaves are 
more digestible than stems. Livestock will selectively graze leaves and petioles, before grazing stems. Leaves also 
decline more slowly in digestibility than stems. In a rotational grazing system, regrowth will be more leafy and thus 
maintain higher digestibility longer. 


Monitoring the Animals 

Producers can monitor the effectiveness of the nutrition program in the long term by herd performance records. 
In the short term, it can be monitored by keeping an eye on the “amount of milk in the bucket” and by monitoring the 
flesh or body condition score of the livestock. 

Dairymen can quite easily assess changes in forage quality by reading the dipstick in the bulk tank. Body 
condition changes can be a more reliable guide than body weight for evaluating the day-to-day nutrition status of beef 
cows or ewes. This system also had an advantage compared to body weight in that scales or corrals are not needed for 
body condition evaluation. Body condition scoring tools are available at your county extension office. 

Monitoring the Forage 

Accurately measuring pasture nutritional value involves collecting samples for laboratory analysis. Sample close 
to where animals graze, not spots that are avoided. With rotational grazing, taking random samples in the pasture 
will work better than with continuous grazing system. Most feeds should be placed in a sealable container and frozen 
prior to mailing. County extension offices have bags and forms for forage samples. Extension personnel can 
recommend the most appropriate analysis to be conducted at the laboratory. 

Admittedly, the information from the laboratory may be “after the fact” since the samples are taken when or near 
the time the animals are actually grazing the forage. However, such information will give you a base to start evaluating 
forage quality. A combination of grazing management experience and laboratory analyses will allow you to make better 
day-to-day estimates of forage quality and determine if there is a need for supplementation. 

Paddock Layout and 

Design HOW BIG SHOULD MY PADDOCKS BE? 

When considering developing To answer this question you must first determine the animal requirements from the 
a management-intensive pasture pasture and available forage. 

system, one of the first major Daily Animal Dry Matter Requirements Dry Matter Yield/Acre (approximate) 
concerns is “How big do I make Beef & Sheep - 3% of their Body Weight Range - 100 - 500 pounds of DM per 
the paddocks?” Many beginning Dairy - 3.5% - 4% inch of growth 
“grass farmers” would like a * Dependent upon plant density/acre 

Animal Requirements from Pasture = * Average figure is 300 pounds per inch 

“recipe” to help determine 
(A X B) - C of growth

paddock size and fencing needs. A = Total Body Weight of All Animals 

However, experienced graziers B = DM Requirements Per Day 
will confirm that Management-C = Supplemental Feeds (silage, hay, grain) 

Intensive Grazing is an art Available Forage = [(D - E) X F] X G 

driven by biological science. D = Forage Height in Paddock 
Plant yield, forage species and E = Remaining Stubble 
fertility needs will NOT be F = DM Yield Per Acre (see chart below) 

constant and will vary with G = Utilization Rate (75% - 90%) 

temperature, soil moisture, plant Example: 
rest period, season of year, etc. 34 cows @ 1,100 pounds each = 37,500 pounds of body weight 
Therefore, flexibility will 37,500 X 3% = 1,125 pounds of dry matter (DM) needed 

Pasture at 6” tall X 350# DM = 2100# DM 
need to be built into any Leave residual forage 600# (2 inch height) 
effective grazing system. The 2100# - 600# = 1500# available for grazing 
following guidelines should be 1500# DM X 75% (25% wastage) = 1,125# available DM 

considered before fence building Therefore, 1 acre with 1,125# of available DM will supply the DM requirements of the 34 
begins. cows for one day. 

The above guidelines should help a grazing manager plan a flexible, useful grazing 
system. 

Guideline #1: Design with flexibility in mind. Since livestock needs and plant growth patterns change throughout 
the year, a management-intensive pasture system will need to gear for these changes. A manager can make changes in 
size of paddock, length of grazing period for a paddock from 1 to 3 days etc., number of animals, add second graziers, 
use supplemental feed, move to hay fields during dry weather or use annual forages. 

Guideline #2: Design the system on paper first. An aerial photo can be a real asset in helping to layout possible 
fence patterns. An aerial photo can assist in locating trees, ponds, ridges, etc. and help look at livestock flow patterns. 
In fields which livestock have pastured previously, existing paths can help identify movement patterns. If paths are 
prominent, ask why? Will livestock be able to adapt to a change in flow? Remember, milking dairy cows need to return 
to the barn at least twice each day. 


NUTRITION 
Guideline #3: Each grazing system should contain at least 10 paddocks or subdivisions for good forage 
management. The more subdivisions that are included, the greater the level of management that is needed to obtain a 
positive return. Ten paddocks will allow the manager to graze in a 20 day rotation (2 days per paddock) or 30 day 
rotation (3 days per paddock). Flexibility can be maintained by using larger “permanent” paddocks which can be subdivided by portable fencing. These larger permanent paddocks can allow easy mechanical harvest of hay if needed. 
Paddocks should be as square as possible. It takes less total fence for relatively square paddocks. Also, there is better 
grazing utilization and manure distribution in square paddocks. 

Guideline #4: Fencing should be inexpensive and electric, energized by a low impedance, high voltage energizer. 
The perimeter fence should be sufficient to allow the manager (and family) confidence that the livestock will not 
“escape”. Internal divisions should be just enough to keep livestock from challenging them. One electrified wire will 
maintain cattle but two or three will be needed for sheep. If the manager is bringing in stocker calves which may not 
be familiar with electric fence, the first paddocks to be used should have more wires to help with “training”. You may 
also train the animals to electric fencing in a corral or secured area. 

Guideline #5: In rough, hilly land, slope aspect and location of hill crests should be considered. Land with south 
facing slopes which tend to warm earlier in spring and get drier in summer, should be fenced separately if areas are 
large enough. Conversely, north facing slopes should also be handled separately. Livestock tend to “camp” on hill crests 
and as a result fertility is transferred to these locations because of the additional manure. Fencing which limits access 
to these areas help eliminate this “build up”. 

Guideline #6: Each paddock in a system should contain enough land to produce approximately the same amount 
of forage dry matter. In varying soil types paddock size may need to vary due to the land’s productive capabilities. 
System management is easier to control when dry matter quantity is similar For example, one and one-half acres may 
be needed to equal one acre of pasture from soil of higher productivity. 

Guideline #7: When slopes are greater than 15 percent, fence paddocks so that livestock will graze on the contour. 
Livestock grazing patterns more readily conform to the contour rather than up and down the slope. Soil erosion will 
be reduced by grazing on the contour. 

Guideline #8: Establish lanes or walkways on the higher, drier soils. Concentrated livestock traffic will cause 
paths and bare ground. With paths going up and down slopes, considerable erosion can occur. Additional practices such 
as “water bars” (ditches which carry water across roads to a grassed area) or graveling may be necessary. 

For species other than dairy, lanes may not be needed when water is supplied in the paddock. Temporary lanes can 
be constructed with poly-wire or tape when needed to move livestock long distances. 

Any gates should be in the corner of the paddock. It should be so that lead animals can find it or be driven to it, 
and thus other animals will follow them down the lane. Driving relatively large herds through small gates and alleys 
can be difficult. 

Guideline #9: Try to establish paddocks which will allow you to graze plant species which are similar in maturity. 
For example, bluegrass will be ready to regraze in 20 days in spring, while alfalfa will be ready in 32-35 days. These 
two cannot be grazed correctly together. If the manager concentrates on bluegrass, the alfalfa will be too young and 
will “die out” from the stand. On the other hand, if grazing is programmed for alfalfa, the blue grass will be too mature 
(low feed value) and will not be grazed willingly. A grazier needs to determine the species to be managed correctly and 
manage to have it grazed prior to seed head formation. 

Guideline #10: Where possible, limit the livestock's access to streams where banks are low and use gravel and/or 
geotextile cloth in these areas. For example, try to fence so that the stream is available for watering of livestock from 
one side of the stream. Long term planning should include goals to eliminate watering from streams on a constant 
basis. 

Guideline #11: Plan to have additional land near your grazing system for use with temporary fencing during hot, 
dry summer months. As the season gets drier and warmer, forage growth slows. Also, spring born livestock get larger 
and need more forage. Nearby hay fields can then be included in the grazing plan. Producers should also consider crop 
residues, sacrifice paddocks, holding areas and warm season grasses in their grazing plans. 

Call Before You Dig, Pound or Slice! 

There are many buried utilities along roads and even across fields. Before you drive posts or lay waterlines, contact 
your local utilities protection service to make sure you are safe from danger and liability to damaged utilities. 

Providing Water for Grazing Systems 

Within any grazing system, water must be provided to livestock in adequate quantity and quality. Clean water and 
ample high quality forage are essential for improved livestock production. Inadequate livestock water developments 
in pasture areas can contribute to serious livestock losses, prevent efficient use of forages, encourage overgrazing near 
existing water supplies and under-grazing away from the water sources. 


The following table (taken from the University of Wisconsin “Pastures for Profit”) can be used as a general 
guideline for daily water requirements of grazing animals: 

Animal Gallons Per Day 
Beef 8-10 
Dairy Cows 
(in milk) 30 
Sheep 1 
Horses 8 

Keep in mind that these are average figures. Water needs vary greatly with air temperature, relative humidity, 
animal size and percent moisture of the diet. For example, water needs are higher on hot, dry days or when grazing dry 
forage. Water needs decrease on cool, rainy days or when livestock graze lush forage. Young, lush forage will have a 
moisture content of 70% to 90% and can account for a large percentage of an animal's water needs. 

Does it Pay to Put Water in Each Paddock? 

Providing adequate water to livestock is usually seen as one of the biggest obstacles to starting a rotational grazing 
plan. Many graziers use lanes to provide access to a central watering location but the ideal situation is to have water 
available in every paddock. Economic analysis of grazing systems indicate that money spent to provide water to several 
central locations or to each paddock generates rapid repayment due to increased animal productivity and better 
utilization of pasture forage which decreases feed costs. Jim Gerrish and co-workers at the Forage Systems Research 
Center in Missouri have researched the distance beef cattle have to travel to water and how that affects grazing 
distribution and pasture utilization. In a study involving 160 acres, these researchers found that animal carrying 
capacity could be increased an additional 14% simply by keeping livestock within 800 feet of water. Carrying capacity 
was increased due to better pasture utilization, which permitted more forage to be harvested as compared to systems 
where livestock had to travel more than 800 feet to water. At the time of the study, that additional carrying capacity 
resulted in an additional $35 of gross income per acre annually. 

Researchers in Wyoming have conducted similar studies under rangeland conditions. Results there showed that 
cattle did 77% of their grazing within 1,200 feet of the water source. Although approximately 65% of the pasture was 
more the 2,400 feet from the water source, it supported only 12% of the grazing usage. 

The researchers at Missouri concluded that for the humid, temperate zone of the U.S., water sources should be closer 
to livestock than under rangeland conditions. For optimal land use efficiency, water should be provided within 600 to 
800 feet of all grazed areas. 

Sources of Water 
Ponds 

Water for livestock from a pond can best be developed by installing floating inlets and piping the water with gravity 
flow, or pumping to a tank or a series of tanks below the dam. Water located two feet below the surface has been found 
to be the highest quality water in a pond. 

Springs 

Springs will generally supply higher quality water than a pond. The water tank should be located where it can be 
accessible to the livestock but away from the spring box and collection system. The overflow should be piped away. The 
water can be piped by gravity to one or a series of tanks. 

Streams 

Many producers are fencing livestock out of streams or restricting their access to the stream for drinking only. 
Limiting the animals to small areas that have been protected from erosion allows them a watering site without 
disturbing the entire stream bank. Some producers are restricting all access and pumping the water from the stream 
into tanks for the livestock. 


NUTRITION 
Wells 

A few livestock producers are utilizing a well or public water and are pumping and piping the water to tanks or frost 
proof fountains. 

Pumps 

Pump alternatives where there is no electricity include the pasture pump, ram pumps and sling pumps. 

Pipes 

If the water system is gravity flow, use a linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) pipe. For pressurized systems, 
use a rolled high density polyethylene (HDPE). The size of the pipe needs to be matched to the demand placed on it. 
Gravity flow and siphon systems will typically require 1 1/4 inch pipe. One inch pipe should be sufficient for most 
pressurized systems. In situations where large numbers of livestock are running together, professional assistance will 
be useful in sizing tanks and water pipes for mains and laterals. 

Hauling Water 

“Water wagons” are low cost from a materials stand point but expensive from the extra labor that is required. 
However, it does allow a producer to keep expenses to a minimum during the start up phase of a grazing operation. 
Water wagons can also be useful in severe droughts when normal water sources fail. 

Installation 

Portable piping systems seem to be a good alternative for many farms. These systems can either be above or below 
ground pipes with occasional risers. First of all, design with flexibility in mind especially when you are just starting 
your pasture system. It may be best to lay the pipe above ground until you have gained enough experience to know 
where the fences and water lines should be placed. 

There will always be concern with black plastic pipe getting too hot in July and August. Water consumption in cattle 
is highest when the water is at room temperature (90-100 degrees F). That is not to say that the water will not get hotter 
than room temperature. Locate the pipe under a fence where shading from tall grass will keep it as cool as possible. 
Dumping the water tubs in mid-afternoon on hot days will allow cooler water to flow into the tank. Small tanks have 
an advantage in that near constant flow of water for a large group of livestock will maintain a more consistent 
temperature. 

The area around all permanent tanks should be raveled with egg sized stone or otherwise treated to provide all 
weather access. The large stones are uncomfortable to stand on and help to prevent boss cows from dominating a water 
source. Temporary or portable tanks are best when placed under an electric fence wire to help control the access and 
prevent tank damage or upset by the animals. 

Livestock watering facilities such as tanks, pumps and pipe should be sized to meet the needs of all the livestock 
that will be using the system. If the water source yields less than what is needed for a watering period but can provide 
the daily needs, a storage tank can be used. Buried pipe needs to be placed at least 30 inches deep for freeze protection 
during severe winters. If the pipeline is delivering gravity flow water, eliminate all the humps in the line where air 
could become trapped and stop the flow. Plastic or polypipe should not be laid in a straight line in the bottom of the 
trench. It should be curved back and forth to allow for contraction in the cold weather. A general rule is to install 101 
feet of pipe for every 100 feet of trench. Stones should be removed from the bottom of the trench so the pipe is not laying 
on or next to potential line breakers. Most graziers feel the cost of water development was some of the best money they 
have spent. Costs do need to be kept to a minimum and preferably less that $20 per acre. 


WINTER FEEDING


William Lipsey 


Weaned calves at their feed bunk. 

Throughout the summer, the cows have been out on pasture doing what they do best – grazing. As fall rolls 
around, the pastures slow down, then stop growing and for most Highland breeders, it’s time to feed cows for the 
next several months. How and what to feed your beasties depends greatly on their ages, what part of the country 
you are in and your general philosophy towards raising cattle. 

When thinking about caring for your cattle over the winter, the first thing to do is take inventory of the animals you 
have and think of them as at least three groups based on their nutritional requirements: high, medium and low. 

High Requirement Group 

This group will contain your weaned calves and any cow/calf pairs that are still nursing. Most Highland calves are 
weaned at 6-8 months of age and at 300-400 lbs. At this point in their lives they are growing animals and need fairly 
high quality feed, particularly protein and energy, to meet their needs. You need to consider your goals for the animal. 
For example, if you have a weaned 400 lb. bull that you want to be able to breed cows next spring, he will need to be 
gaining at least 1.5-2 lbs./day to reach the appropriate size. A weanling heifer that you are planning to breed at 2 years 
of age may only need to gain 1 lb. per day, while if you are considering showing her, you probably want her to gain more. 

If you have cows that calved in the summer or fall and are still nursing their calves they have tremendous 
nutritional needs. Protein once again is extremely important. 

Medium Requirement Group 

This group contains your yearlings, bred heifers, young cows and any thin cows. The goal for all these animals will 
be to gain weight over the winter. 


NUTRITION 
Low Requirement Group 

This group contains your mature 
dry cows that are in good condition 
(BCS 5-7). A dry, mature cow in good 
condition can maintain herself on feed 
that is considerably lower quality than 
what is needed for growth. Keep in 
mind that in her last 90 days before 
calving her needs will increase. 

Let’s say that you have a herd of 
Highlands that consists of 10 brood 
cows (6 older cows and 4 first calf 
heifers), one bred heifer, a 3 year old 
bull and 9 weaned calves (5 heifers, four 
steers – your 10th calf you sent off to 
the bull test). If you are in the southern 
part of the country where you have 
short, open winters, grazing stockpiled 
pastures may be an option. In order to 
stockpile a pasture, cattle should be 
removed from it 75-90 days prior to the 
end of the growing season. If you are 
going to graze your whole herd then you 
may consider testing the forage, and if 
it’s low in protein, consider supplementing the weanlings. Also, make sure you wait at least 30 days before returning 
weaned calves with their mothers. 

Round bale hay is a convenient method for feeding Highlands. Use a good 
feeder to reduce waste. 
Another option for those in areas where snow cover is not a problem is grazing corn stalks. Dry cows can graze corn 
stalks for 60 days with appropriate mineral supplements and some additional hay. Contact your local extension agent 
for guidelines to grazing corn stalks. 

In most parts of the country, grazing through the winter is not an option, feeding your cattle is a must. Generally 
it is best to divide your cattle up into at least three different groups so that each group can receive the correct feed. In 
our example herd, you would have your weaned calves (heifers and steers) in one pen, your 4 three-year-old heifers (the 
first calf heifers), your bred heifer and perhaps your bull in another; and finally the 6 mature cows in a third. Now you 
need to decide what to feed them. The weanlings require the best quality feed. If you are a grass fed operation consider 
second cutting hay, high quality first cutting or haylage. If you are not a grass fed operation, then a combination of hay 
and grain would be appropriate, feeding the grain at a rate of 1 lb. per hundred pounds of body weight. 

The first calf heifer group can manage on good quality hay fed free choice. If they are smaller or thin you might consider 
supplementing the hay with a protein source (soybean meal or a protein block or lick) or with corn silage or haylage. They 
should be eating 2-2.5 % of their body weight in dry matter (a 1000 lbs. heifer should get 20-25 lbs. hay per day). 

Your mature cows can get by on your lowest quality feed. Your latest cut hay will do fine, protein requirements for 
a mature dry cow are around 6%. However, you need to keep in mind that you are just maintaining her on this diet. If 
the cows start the winter in poor condition then you will need to consider feeding them a higher quality feed. In 
addition, as they get closer to calving, in their third trimester, you will want to improve the quality of feed. Feeding hay 
at a rate of 2% of the cow’s body weight is proper for these animals. 

The main reason to divide your cattle into groups in the winter is to allow the younger cattle, who generally have 
higher nutritional needs than the older ones, to eat what they need. If in our example herd we left all the animals 
together, the 6 mature cows would eat all the best feed, the heifers getting the next shot at it and then finally the 
weanlings. Even if you are feeding them all the same thing – hay, baleage etc. – you should still separate the different 
groups. 

One final note, many people getting into Highland cattle have the misconception that because they are “hardy” 
cattle this means they should not be fed and particularly not given grain. While historically their ability to survive 
harsh winters in Scotland was an important attribute, times have changed and mere survival is not the goal of a cattle 
breeder. Their value as “hardy” beasts is now measured in their ability to calve unassisted, their maternal ability, 
longevity and fleshing ability. It is important that all Highland breeders provide the appropriate nutrition to all their 
animals and to be able to do so in an economical way. This may mean feeding grain, hay, pasture, round bales, square 
bales or whatever makes the most sense in your operation. 


Glossary 

Dry Matter: The actual dry matter in a feed. Dry matter is used when calculating daily needs and intake, as feeds can 
vary greatly in dry matter, hay usually running 90%, grain 80-90%, corn silage 30%. 

Free Choice vs. Limited Feeding: Feeding free choice means having feed in front of an animal at all times and 
limited feeding means limiting an animal’s intake. Many feed hay free choice, particularly if the quality is low or if you 
are worried about each animal getting their fair share. Grain is mainly fed in limited amounts. 

Grain: A generic term that is used for corn, oats, barley, soybean and processed feeds. Many breeders buy premixed 
grains that have mineral and protein supplements. Non processed grains often need to be mixed to meet the 
requirements of an animal. For example, corn is high in energy but low in protein (8%) so if it is to be fed to weanlings, 
an additional protein supplement like soybean (44% protein) may be needed. 

Hay: Dried grass or legumes (alfalfa, trefoil or clover) that is baled in either square or round bales. Hay is the most 
common cattle feed (after pasture). The quality of hay can vary greatly depending on when it is cut, whether its first 
or second cutting and what it is (legume vs. grass). It is a good idea to have your hay tested for its feed values. 

Corn Silage: The entire corn plant, chopped and then ensiled (fermented). A good roughage for energy but low in 
protein. Corn silage can be stored in silos, bunks, piled on the ground or in plastic “bags”. 

Haylage or Baleage: Grass or legumes that have either been chopped or round baled at higher moisture and ensiled. 
Round bale baleage is becoming popular in many parts of the country. It is a high quality, high protein feed. 

Sample Rations 

Weaned heifers or steers (500 lbs.) 

• 4 lbs. shelled corn, 1 lb. soybean meal and 12 lbs. hay 
Lactating (nursing) cows 

• 25-30 lbs. (free choice) high quality hay 
• 16 lbs. high quality hay + 20 lbs. corn silage 
• 45-65 lbs. haylage or baleage 
Yearlings and bred heifers 

• full feed (20-25 lbs.) good quality hay 
• 15 lbs. hay + 15 lbs. corn silage 
• 40-55 lbs. of haylage or baleage depending on the moisture content 
Dry cows 

• 17-25 lbs. hay 
• 7 lbs. hay + 15 lbs. straw 
• 1-2 acres of corn stalks per cow plus hay or supplement 
• 35-50 lbs. of haylage or baleage 

NUTRITION 
FINISHING RATIONS


Jim Welch, Ph.D. 

The primary feed for beef cattle is roughage. This includes pasture or range and stored plant material as hay or 
silage. Using roughage for growth and reproduction is what justifies the existence of cattle in our agricultural 
systems. There are, however, times in the beef business where rapid gains are desired either for the last part of 
the growth period for slaughter animals or for show animals. The gut capacity of cattle does not allow sufficient intake 
of most forages to allow for maximum growth. Grain is usually used as it is more concentrated in terms of nutrients 
available per unit of both weight and volume. The rumen system must have some roughage to keep working properly 
(they can’t change into a pig) but significant amounts of grain can be fed to get faster growth and more finish 
(fattening). 

To start with, changes in a ruminant’s ration must be made slowly. Often over 70% of the energy from feed material 
is derived from microbial growth in the rumen. If there is a sudden surge of highly fermentable feed, huge amounts of 
excess acids can be produced and the animal will become very sick and may die. Gradual change allows for the system 
to adapt. Roughage adapted cattle should be started on grain at no more than 2 lbs. of grain plus all the roughage they 
will eat. The grain should be increased about 1/2 lb. per day until 60 to 80% of the dry matter being eaten is grain. The 
cattle should be carefully observed daily with particular attention to the consistency of the manure. If scours occurs the 
grain offering should be reduced until the manure is normal. Much time and growth potential can be lost with a 
prolonged upset stomach. Over fattening is to be avoided also. Fat cows and heifers will often have problems conceiving. 
Fatty udders will permanently reduce milk production. Feeding grain for long periods of time will permanently reduce 
rumination and roughage intake ability. 

The concentrates (grain or grain byproducts) fed can be a wide variety of materials but they all have the property 
of supplying high amounts of digestible nutrients compared to roughages. Ration balancing is a process beyond the 
scope of this article but a general guide will suffice for the discussion. For maximum growth rates a protein level of 12% 
to 15% will be adequate and a final digestibility of 80%. Oats and barley are safer grains than corn or wheat. Rolling 
or crimping increases the digestibility. Some feed mills produce pellets from byproduct feeds such as wheat bran, midds 
and soy hulls. A 16% protein high fiber dairy pellet may be the best concentrate available. Many feeders like to feed 
grass hay when high grain intake is in place because legume hay may be laxative. The major requirement is constant 
attention, assessing the progress of the cattle and their projected time to the desired fitted condition. 

A typical feeding schedule for a 500 lb. bull might go as follows: 

Day 1 10 lbs. hay 
Day 2 9 lbs. hay plus 2 lbs. grain 
Day 3 8 lbs. hay plus 2.5 lbs. grain 
Day 4 7 lbs. hay plus 3 lbs. grain 
……………… 
Day 10 3 lbs. hay plus 6 lbs. grain 
……………… 
Day 15 3 lbs. hay plus 7 lbs. grain 

Keep this 3/7 ratio, increase both hay and grain as growth occurs and appetite increases. 


REPRODUCTION


CALVING TIME


Making sure your calf gets a good start and dealing with calving difficulties 

Pat White, D.V.M. 

Normal calving in the 
Highland cow is 
simple and easy but 
despite the reputation of the 
breed for ease in calving, 
small calves, and excellent 
mothering, problems can and 
do arise. Gestation in the 
Highland usually runs about 
280-285 days from the 
breeding date. If you are lucky 
enough to catch the cow in 
heat and see her bred, that 
date should be recorded, as it 
can aid in predicting when the 
cow will actually calve. Bear 
in mind that some individuals 
will carry their calves for 
considerably shorter or considerably longer periods of 
time and still be healthy and 
normal. Known gestation 
lengths of 270 to 292 days 
have been reported on the 
same farm. The bigger risk 
will be in those cows that 
carry their calves for the 
longer time period. Calves add 
1 to 2 pounds of weight per day during the last 2 weeks of pregnancy, so that longer gestation periods result in larger 
calves. Carried to the extreme, this can lead to oversized calves for the cow. The cow is not the only contributing factor 
to gestation length. The bull also can contribute genetics for either shorter or longer gestation lengths. Thus, some bulls 
will routinely produce larger calves than the norm in many of the cows to which they are bred, while others will produce 
smaller calves because of a shorter gestation length. Heavy birth weights do account for most of the problems related to 
calving difficulty caused by calf effects. Birth weights are affected by the breed of the sire, individual bull within a breed, 
sex of the calf (bull calves tend to gestate for a longer period), the age of the cow (calf size increases with the age of the 
cow) and nutrition of the cow. Protein deprivation has been associated with smaller calf size and less dystocia, however 
the advantages of adequate and even excessive protein levels is too great on the later performance of the calf to be 
ignored. It is never recommended that animals be deprived of adequate nutrition as a method of controlling calf size. 
Sometimes the shape of the calf may have an effect on calving problems. Large shoulders or hips may be two critical 
areas and may help explain why even normal lighter weights in bull calves may still be associated with dystocia. 

A new calf gets a good start. 
The cow herself can contribute to calving problems not only through her contribution to calf size but to her maturity. 
First calf heifers are generally smaller in size than mature cows and their pelvic area increases in size as the cow 
approaches maturity. Calving difficulty is more likely to be seen in 2 and 3 year old cows with a smaller pelvic area. 
This pelvic area will increase as the cow ages and difficulty calving as a heifer does not necessarily indicate a lifetime 
of calving problems. 

Pelvic area also varies by individual, so there will be members of a breed that in fact do have smaller pelvic areas 
than the average. Measurements of pelvic area can be used to make culling decisions but only when compared between 
similar aged animals. 

Calf position at birth needs to be normal; about 5% of calves will be in an abnormal position. If you are unlucky 
enough to have one of these calves, it will be a problem and assistance must be given to the cow in order to save her 
and hopefully the calf as well. 


REPRODUCTION 
CALVING PREPARATIONS 
1. Move cows due to calve to a special calving pasture. The pasture should be easily seen from a road, lane 
or house and should provide good footing for a newborn calf. Slippery, muddy conditions may prevent the 
calf from getting to its feet and delay colostrum consumption. If the calf thrashes around in slick mud, it 
makes that much more work for the cow in cleaning off the calf. All that Highland hair is a liability 
to the newborn calf until it is dry. 
2. Fence cows out of woods and timber but leave windbreaks. 
3. Have some area available that is a special calving assistance pen or barn. 
4. Keep all calving equipment in a clean plastic container with a cover that can be easily moved to a truck 
or calving area. 
5. Train your spouse, children and neighbors, if necessary, to look for signs of labor. Check cows in early 
afternoon. 
6. Count cows at feeding time and check for missing cows. 
7. Get a calving video and watch it. Know when and how to assist in labor. 
8. Never leave a cow that has started labor to go to bed or work. Cows in active labor should be observed 
every hour. 
Normal Parturition 

Impending parturition has several indicators. Udder development is one of the earliest signs of impending 
parturition but it is not reliable to predict the actual time of calving. Heifers can show enlargement of the udder as 
early as 4 months of pregnancy. Cows generally don’t show enlargement until considerably closer to calving, many times 
in the neighborhood of 2-3 weeks prior. Still other cows may bag up literally days prior to calving. 

The most accurate signs indicating close onset of labor is the changes occurring in the pelvic ligaments. The croup 
ligaments and muscles sink, the caudal border of the sacro-sciatic ligament between the tailbones and the pin bones 
becomes less cordlike and tight, and more flaccid and relaxed. As a result, the tailhead will become slightly raised and 
the entire area around the tailhead and vulva will be soft and flabby. Calving will usually commence within 24-48 
hours. 

Normal calving can be divided into 3 general stages. 

Stage 1 Preparation for calving takes approximately 2-6 hours, although this can vary considerably between 
breeds and individuals within the breed. During pregnancy, the calf has been on its back. Just prior to labor, the calf 
rotates to an upright position with its head and front legs pointed toward the birth canal. This position provides the 
least resistance during birth. Cows and heifers will often appear nervous and wander away from the main cow herd 
during this stage. Often they can be seen lying down and getting back up often. They are obviously uncomfortable. The 
sac comprising the chorioallantois breaks as it presses against the cervix and forces its complete dilation. The uterus 
begins contractions. 

At this point Stage 2 Delivery starts. This usually will take 1-2 hours, sometimes longer in a heifer. The amnionic 
water sac pushes through the cervix and the fetus enters the birth canal, usually with the cow lying down, although 
occasionally a cow may stand during delivery. Often the animal will lie on its side and will be visibly straining. This 
water sac may appear at the vulva as a distended translucent membrane. The two forelegs (actually the hooves) should 
be the first thing you will see of the calf itself. Many times the feet will appear and disappear several times during the 
early part of delivery. Once the feet have made their appearance at the vulva of the cow, definite progress should be 
noted within 30 minutes or the cow should be checked. The head should be resting between the legs just inside the vulva 
at this point. When the nose is exposed at the opening of the vulva, the cow will commence maximal straining to pass 


the shoulders and chest through the pelvis. Once the head is clear of the vulva, the cow may rest for several minutes 
before she begins maximal contractions again. At this point complete expulsion of the calf is rapid. Once the hips pass 
through the pelvis of the cow, the umbilical cord will break and respiration generally begins. Once the calf’s nose is 
outside the vulva, it can start respiration, although its ability to inflate the lungs are limited by the confines of the 
vaginal walls. Occasionally the hips and legs will remain inside the birth canal until the calf or the cow moves. Delivery 
generally occurs within 1 hour or less in mature cows. First calf heifers can take 1-2 hours for normal delivery. 
Assistance is warranted if any labor goes beyond 2-3 hours. 

Stage 3 of parturition is the passing of the placenta (afterbirth). This usually occurs within 2 to 8 hours. 
The button attachments (cotyledons) that attach the placenta to the uterus relax and then uterine contractions expel the 
placenta. If the placenta is retained past 24 hours, consultation with a veterinarian is indicated. Often no treatment is 
necessary and retained placenta may just indicate the fatigue. Artificial induction of labor may also be associated with 
a retained placenta. If your herd suffers from high rates of retained placenta, the diet ration should be checked for 
protein and energy values. Likewise, some mineral deficiencies, such as selenium, can contribute to the abnormally long 
retention of the afterbirth. 

Determining When and How to Intervene 

1. Rule of thumb: assist after 2-3 hours of labor or 30 minutes of no progress. Statistically, early intervention (after 6090 minutes of labor) is more successful than waiting until the cow is exhausted and the calf is stressed. Calves that 
experience calving difficulty are less healthy. Furthermore, they will take longer to stand and nurse if they have a 
difficult birth. Calves require colostrum within 4-12 hours of birth. The sooner they nurse, the more antibodies they 
absorb from their mother’s colostrum. Delayed nursing due to prolonged delivery may increase illness do to respiratory 
disease and scours. Calves that are sick early in life often have lower weaning weights and poorer performance once on 
feed. Cows and heifers that experience calving difficulty will probably not rebreed as rapidly. Giving the cow more time 
to see if she can do it on her own, while perhaps successful in delivery of the calf, may result in a weakened calf and a 
cow that is delayed in rebreeding. This may even result in culling of the animal if you limit yourself to a 45-60 day 
breeding season and she can’t get bred in this time period. 
2. Cleanliness is mandatory. Wash and disinfect your arms, equipment and the perineal area of the cow. 
3. Do not use liquid soap as a lubricant. It breaks down the natural lubricant of the cow and can irritate the lining of 
the birth canal. Standard obstetrical lubricants, unused cooking oil, mineral oil or Vaseline are all excellent lubricants 
but veterinary lubricants are far easier to clean up than oil based lubes. 
4. The cow needs a comfortable calving area, about 12 square feet, under cover, well lit and well bedded. It is not 
recommended to put the cow in a squeeze chute, as her inclination will be to lie down during assisted delivery and she 
could get stuck in the chute. It may be necessary to put her in the chute to get a halter on her so that her head is tied 
when you attempt to assist her. 
5. Assess the situation. Has the cervix dilated? If you can pass your hand along the vaginal wall into the uterus. You 
should feel no ridges of tissue; it should all be smooth and continuous. If you feel a ridge of tissue (not the bony pelvis) 
the cervix is not completely dilated and pulling a calf at this stage can damage the cow and the calf. 
Is the water sac broken? If the water sac has broken, it is important to make good progress to delivery. If it is broken, 
you should feel a wet slimy calf directly with your hands, instead of the calf through a tough membrane that slips all 
over the calf. It is not recommended that you break the water sac, as it could stimulate early respiration that may 
drown the calf if its head is not out of the vulva. 

Is the calf in a normal position for delivery? The two front feet should be right side up coming out of the vulva, with 
the calf’s head between and on top of the legs (with the cow standing). If this is not the case, determine if you have the 
expertise to correct the situation. If not, call a veterinarian. 

Will the calf pass through the pelvis? Forcing a large calf through a small pelvic opening can result in injury or 
death to either or both the cow and calf. If one person can pull the first leg outside the vulva as far as the width of one 
hand above the pastern and while holding the first leg in this position, if one person can pull the second foot equally 
far outside the vulva, then there should be sufficient room to deliver the calf. This is because at these distances, both 
shoulders of the calf will have passed the bony entrance of the pelvis. The circumference of the calf is greatest at the 
points of the shoulders. If the head and feet are still inside the birth canal, a veterinarian can still deliver a live calf 
via caesarean section. 

OB chains should be attached below the dewclaws and above the hooves, with a single loop, and the large link on 
the dorsal (top) surface of the pastern. 


REPRODUCTION 
Pull alternately on each leg to “walk” the shoulders out. At this point, traction is applied straight back and always 
applied with gradually increasing pressure. 

Once the head and shoulders are free, rotate the calf 90 degrees to aid in passage of the hips through the pelvis. 

Apply traction downward, with gradually increasing pressure. If the calf becomes hip locked, the umbilical cord can 

become pinched off. Make sure the calf is breathing and call for a veterinarian. 

6. All posterior presentations (rear feet first) are an emergency. The feet will appear to be upside down. While the cow 
may deliver the calf without assistance, once the hips of the calf pass the pelvic rim, the umbilical cord is pinched off. 
The calf is deprived of the oxygen in its mother’s blood and its head is still within the uterus, where it will not breath. 
Death will ensue rapidly unless the calf is delivered immediately. Again chains are looped around each foot below the 
dewclaws with the large link at the front of the foot, which will now be the underside of what is showing so that the 
pull comes off the actual front of the foot. Rotating the calf a quarter turn and alternating traction between the feet 
will assist in delivery. If it is possible for two people to pull both hocks on a rotated fetus far enough for the hocks to 
appear at the lips of the vulva, then it should be possible to deliver the calf through the vagina. 
Two reasonably strong people should have all the strength necessary to vaginally deliver the calf. If they cannot 
pull the calf, it will probably be necessary to perform a c-section or a fetotomy (removal of the fetus in pieces.) A calf 
jack or calf puller should only be used by someone familiar with its operation. The calf puller can exert tremendous 
pressure, and used incorrectly, can result in serious damage to the calf and cow. 

7. The calf puller is designed to save the strength of the operator. It was never intended to stretch an oversize calf 
through a keyhole. 
8. If you are assisting a cow and you have made no progress in 30 minutes, call a veterinarian. 
Getting That Highland Calf Off to a Good Start 

The vast majority of Highland calves will be delivered by their dams with no problems whatsoever. Likewise, it is 
probable that the majority will also get to their feet, nurse and receive adequate amounts of colostrum without 
assistance. There are Highland calves, unfortunately, that will do no such thing. A calf that has been traumatized by 
dystocia, been stressed by the cold or whose dam has a poorly shaped udder may need assistance to ensure adequate 
colostrum intake. 

Calves that have undergone the rigors of a hard, long delivery are weak and stressed, often far more than they 
appear. Cold and wet conditions are further stressors, despite this breed’s reputation for hardiness. Wet, cold Highland 
calves are sitting ducks for difficulty in nursing and failure to consume adequate levels of colostrum. Calves basically 
have limited time to consume that vital first milk so loaded with antibodies they need to fight off all the diseases 
running rampant on the farm of birth. Mature animals are immune to all these diseases through natural exposure and 
vaccinations and as a result most people don’t even know these diseases exist on their property. Newborn calves are 
born with no acquired immunity to these diseases and require colostrum to provide their only protection against 
disease organisms until the calves are capable of producing their own antibodies. 

Calves need dry footing when they are first born. Muddy, slippery conditions with a calf unable to get to its feet, 
continuing to coat itself with mud, will exhaust even the most experienced mothers that managed to deliver quickly 
and easily. Combine a chilled, exhausted, muddy calf with an immature, exhausted heifer who has never witnessed 
calving and doesn’t have the slightest idea what to do, and you have disaster in the making. 

If dystocia was the initiating problem and the cow required assistance, the first priority is to get the calf breathing 
if it is not. Wipe the mucous from around the nose and suspend the calf from its hind legs to allow drainage of 
fluid from its airways. There usually is no need to panic if excessive fluid seems to come out; most of it is probably coming 
from the calf’s stomach. Throw cold water on the calf’s head to stimulate respiration if it is not breathing. 
Another method to stimulate respiration is to vigorously tickle the inside of the nose with straw or apply pressure 
to the chest wall just above where the heartbeat is felt the strongest, which may stimulate the phrenic nerve. 

Next, dip and hold the umbilical cord in a cup of 7% (strong) iodine.
The calf should be dried, either by the cow or with human help.
The cow should be checked for the presence of colostrum, blind quarters and mastitis. Some first milk will appear


to be bloody from bruising of the udder as the cow walks with a distended bag the last few days before calving. Bloody 
milk is not a problem to feed to the calf, however, watery milk with clumps of debris in it or curdled, clotted yellow milk 
that resembles thick pus should not be fed. 

Help the calf to nurse either on the cow or feed it by bottle or esophageal feeder. Every cattle breeder should have 

and know how to use an esophageal feeder. Ask a knowledgeable stockman or veterinarian to demonstrate if you don’t 

know how to use one. 

Allow the calf and cow to bond by penning with the dam in a warm and sheltered environment. 


Feeding Colostrum 

Colostrum in the beef cow tends to be more concentrated than in the dairy cow. A general rule of thumb is that the 
calf should consume 10% of its body weight in colostrum in the first twelve hours after birth. Due to the increased 
concentration of the beef cow’s colostrum a 75 pound calf should ingest 2-3 quarts of colostrum within 4-12 hours of 
birth. The sooner colostrum is given, the more antibodies that will be absorbed through the gut of the calf into the 
bloodstream. After a number of hours, the ability of the gut to permit the passage of relatively large immunoglobulins 
intact shuts down and colostrum antibodies are no longer absorbed. Thus, the importance of providing the newborn calf 
with early and high quality colostrum. 

The best colostrum usually will be from the mother herself but there will be times when she does not have adequate 
amounts or is not available to give colostrum. Heifers do not have as high a quality of colostrum as mature cows, nor 
do they tend to give as much. Sick animals or those in poor health due to nutritional deficiencies may have little or poor 
quality colostrum. 

The best substitute for the mother’s first milk is colostrum from another cow, preferably from the same herd. This 
is important for two reasons: first, the disease exposure for dam and donor will presumably be the same (the calf will 
be protected from disease organisms present on the farm of origin) and you avoid the introduction of potentially 
devastating disease by bringing in off-farm colostrum. Johnes Disease is an excellent example of a disease that could 
be introduced to the farm through colostrum. 

It is wise to bank colostrum from some of your herd members, ideally those that give large volumes of milk and are 
docile enough to allow milking. Colostrum should be taken from the very first milking of that cow immediately after 
she calves, ensuring that there is adequate colostrum for her own calf as well. This colostrum can be frozen indefinitely, 
as long as it is not stored in a freezer with an automatic defrost cycle. Colostrum stored in such a freezer will lose 
substantial percentages of the protective antibodies over a 12 month period of time. Colostrum can be placed in clean 
plastic soda or water bottles that range in size from 12-32 ounces. Such containers are easy to thaw in a hot water bath, 
as their caps can be tightened adequately to allow complete submersion. 

Thawing frozen colostrum requires some care. The best method, if time allows, is to thaw in a hot water bath (not 
boiling) until it has reached 104 degrees. The water can be changed frequently and multiple smaller containers of 12 
and 16 ounces will thaw more quickly than quart or two quart sizes. It is not recommended to microwave frozen 
colostrum. Cooked colostrum destroys the immunoglobulins so that the colostrum has no value. Even on 10% power, 
microwave thawing can result in spots of cooked colostrum. Although more time consuming, hot water baths are a safer 
way to maintain colostrum integrity. 

Although there is no method short of laboratory analysis that will guarantee high quality colostrum, make sure 
your colostrum donor is a mature cow in good health and condition who gives large volumes of milk. Look at her history 
of weaning weights on her calves: the high weaning weights are usually the result of heavy milk production, unless you 
are creep feeding, then you can’t really tell. 

Colostrum Substitutes 

There are a number of colostrum substitutes on the market today. These are supplements, designed to be given to 
calves that have received some natural colostrum but not adequate amounts. You should probably figure that most 
calves should receive roughly 150 grams of immunoglobulins. Many of these powdered products may contain 24-36 
grams of immunoglobulins per 2 quart package. They must be mixed with adequate water and it becomes exceedingly 
difficult to get the required amount of immunoglobulins because of the huge volume of liquid that must be consumed. 
Feeding such a large volume of colostrum substitute,even spread over 12 hours,is not recommended.The calf’s stomach 
is not large enough to digest this amount of food. Certainly, several 2 quart feedings can be made in this time but not 
enough to supply the calf’s total requirement for ideal immunoglobulin levels. 

There are colostrum boluses on the market, however, these may only contain .3 grams of immunoglobulins. These 
are essentially worthless as a colostrum substitute. 

There are also pastes designed as “first milk”. These 30 ml tubes contain only 5 grams of immunoglobulins. 

It is necessary to consider the requirements of the calf before relying on any colostrum substitute. At a bare 
minimum, 80 grams of immunoglobulin should be given in the first 12 hours. Double that amount for ideal levels of 
immunoglobulin in newborn calves. If you consider the fact that 2-3 quarts of real colostrum from a beef cow is adequate 
for most calves, it is obvious just how superior real colostrum is. However, in the event that it is needed, powdered 
colostrum supplements that supply at least 24 grams of immunoglobulins per feeding, are certainly better than nothing 
and give the calf a chance at a successful start in life. 


REPRODUCTION 
Identifying the Calf that May Require Assistance to Nurse 

1. Any calf when the cow required assistance to deliver. (abnormal position, coming backwards, calf large for size of 
cow, sick cow) 
2. Any calf when the cow suffered a prolonged labor and delivery. 
3. Any calf that appears to be struggling and unable to stand. (contracted tendons, muddy conditions) 
4. Any calf whose dam has large banana-like teats. These teats are very difficult for the newborn calf to successfully 
grab and learn to nurse. Teat conformation may be hereditary or can be a result of injury. Serious consideration 
should be given to culling such cows with teats in this category, particularly young cows. Young cows, with large, 
ballooning teats require a lifetime commitment to ensure the calves’ survival. 
5. Any calf born to a cow with a large, pendulous udder. If the udder hangs too low for the calf to find the teats, this is 
a problem. Many cows’ udders do break down with age, and again, this condition may be hereditary. You need to 
consider the history of the cow; a 12 or 13 year old cow who has weaned a lifetime of good calves on your farm 
warrants a different approach than a 4 year old cow with her lifetime and a good part of yours in front of her. 
Lopsided udders, where the front teats are carried considerably higher than the rear, may be unattractive but if the 
calf can function and nurse without assistance this would not be considered a problem udder. 
6. Any calf born to a cow with ballooning teats and a low pendulous udder. This is a horrible combination. Serious 
consideration should be given to culling the cow once she has raised her calf. These calves will not be able to nurse 
and with the likelihood of a hereditary basis, it is wise to consider culling both cow and calf from your breeding herd. 
7. Any calf you discover sucking off a clump of matted hair or a mud ball (or sucking on any other abnormal location) 
for anything more than a few brief seconds. The instinct to suck is very strong in most calves but occasionally they 
will latch onto the handiest protrusion from the cow and it might not be a teat. They may well never make the 
connection that they are not getting any food because they never have had food in their stomach to recognize the 
feeling and nursing brings them the only satisfaction they have ever felt. These calves may fool you into thinking 
that they are truly nursing with their head in the right area but they do not have the teat in their mouth. A nursing 
calf will have milk on his nose, around his mouth and many times on his head. He will develop a full appearance 
after nursing and feel full and firm right behind the ribcage. He will snake along his mother’s underside if he loses 
the teat and will search frantically to pick it up again if he is still hungry. The calf that has nursed may appear more 
hungry when he feels it is time to eat, compared to a calf that has never tasted milk. This may explain many cases 
of calves that appear to be perfectly normal and even energetic for several days after birth and then are found dead. 
8. Calves that seem to nurse constantly, returning over and over again in a very short timespan to the udder may not 
be receiving enough milk. These calves may well recognize the fact that milk is food but can’t get enough to satisfy 
their appetite. These calves may need additional colostrum as well as supplemental nutrition throughout their 
entire calfhood. 
9. Any calf that you are just not sure about. 
Highland cows do tend to be good mothers, cleaning their calves and assisting them in finding the udder and teats. 
However, cattle learn by imitation; calves imitate their mothers when they first learn to eat grass and hay and in many 
other areas of bovine development. Heifers should be allowed to watch calving experienced cows and see how they 
respond to that new life slithering around their bodies. This may not guarantee good mothering but it is one more way 
to get the new mother off to a good start and by extension, help get the calf off to a good start. 


ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION VS.
NATURAL SERVICE


William Lipsey 

As the breeding season rolls around, one decision facing a new cattle owner is whether to buy a bull or breed your 
cows through artificial insemination. Those with smaller herds worry about whether it’s worth owning a bull – 
they get big, hard to handle and is the investment justified for 3 (4, 5, 6 or however many) cows? Below is a look 
at the advantages and disadvantages of AI versus bull ownership and some thoughts as to who should consider which 
system. 

A.I. 
Advantages 
• Variety of high quality genetics – by using AI a breeder can utilize the top bulls in the breed plus, if they want, use 
a variety of bulls each season. 
• Lower up front costs – as opposed to buying a good quality bull, you can purchase straws of semen. 
• Ease of management – without a bull you don’t have to worry about separating young open heifers. All your cattle 
can graze as one unit throughout the season. 
• Control of your breeding season and due dates – with AI you breed your cows when you want them bred and with 
good records you will have fairly accurate due dates for when they will calve. 
Disadvantages 

• Heat detection – in order for an AI program to work you must have the time and knowledge to be able to detect heat 
in your cattle. See The Bagpipe Summer 2003 for a detailed article on heat detection. 
• Facilities – in order to AI you must be able to easily catch your cattle when they come into heat. A head gate and 
some sort of chute system is a necessity. 
• Low conception rates – as a national average 50% is the average conception rates for first service AI. Over the years 
it is very difficult to keep a short calving season using AI alone. 
Owning a Bull 
Advantages 

• He does the work – no heat detection, no worries, just put the bull out with the cows and he will breed them. 
• High quality bulls in the Highland breed are relatively inexpensive as compared to some other breeds of cattle. 
• Highland bulls have excellent dispositions and are a beautiful sight in the pasture. 
Disadvantages 

• Management – all bulls, no matter how gentle, need good management and care when handling. You need to keep 
open animals that you do not want to breed away from your herd sire and in order to control your calving season 
you need to be able to separate your bull from the herd. 
• Daughters – this is the age-old question for many Highland breeders – what to do when the daughters of your herd 
sire are old enough to breed? Sell the bull or the heifers? 
So who should consider AI and who should buy a bull? If you have limited time to spend with your cows and don’t 
have the greatest handling facilities then go out and buy a bull. If you have plenty of time to heat detect and can catch 
your animals easily then AI may be right for you. Don’t make the mistake to assume that AI is the cheaper way to go. 
Even if you have a herd of 10 cows or less it is not necessarily less expensive to AI – by the time you by all the semen 
that you need, pay for synchronizing drugs, the AI technician, etc., the costs are not that different. 

If you are going to use artificial insemination, plan ahead. Find an AI technician and talk to him, make sure he can 
store your semen and find out what time of day he would breed your cows. If he is usually busy and will breed your 
cows “when he gets to them” make sure you have a location to keep the cow in a shaded comfortable place. 

Order your semen well ahead of time and make sure you order enough. If you have a small herd (10 cows or under) 
buy 2 straws per cow, for larger herds 1.5 straws per cow. Consider heat synchronizing your animals, this will reduce 
the time and make it easier to heat detect. 


REPRODUCTION


Make sure your facilities are good. Cows in heat can sometimes be a little nervous and if you are separating them 
from the herd they can be hard to handle. Cows don’t always come into heat when you expect so you need to be able to 
easily catch them at any time during the breeding season 

If you are going to buy a bull – buy wisely. 

A bull will have a dramatic impact on your breeding program so select one with care. One of the best places to buy 
a bull is at one of the bull test sales. There you can buy a bull with confidence that it has been raised properly, is semen 
tested, ready to breed and has been compared to a top selection of his peers. If you are buying an older bull or already 
have one, consider having a vet do a breeding soundness exam before the breeding season. Make sure your herd sire is 
in good condition for breeding season, he will lose weight breeding cows so a bull should start the season in good 
condition. Any bull with a poor disposition should be culled. 

Getting your cows bred each year is the fundamental function of a cattle owner. Whether you use AI, natural service 
or a combination of the two should depend on which system works best for your farm. Choosing wisely will make your 
cattle experience more enjoyable and profitable. 

CATTLE GESTATION TABLE


Based on 283 days
Due dates are plus or minus 10 days with smaller and younger cows 
averaging earlier and older and larger cows later.


Bred Due Bred Due Bred Due 
Jan 1 Oct 10 May 7 Feb 13 Sep 10 Jun 19 
Jan 8 Oct 17 May 14 Feb 20 Sep 17 Jun 26 
Jan 15 Oct 24 May 21 Feb 27 Sep 24 Jul 3 
Jan 22 Oct 31 May 28 Mar 6 Oct 1 Jul 10 
Jan 29 Nov 7 Jun 4 Mar 13 Oct 8 Jul 17 
Feb 5 Nov 14 Jun 11 Mar 20 Oct 15 Jul 24 
Feb 12 Nov 21 Jun 18 Mar 27 Oct 22 Jul 31 
Feb 19 Nov 28 Jun 25 Apr 3 Oct 29 Aug 7 
Feb 26 Dec 5 Jul 2 Apr 10 Nov 5 Aug 14 
Mar 5 Dec 12 Jul 9 Apr 17 Nov 12 Aug 21 
Mar 12 Dec 19 Jul 16 Apr 24 Nov 19 Aug 28 
Mar 19 Dec 26 Jul 23 May 1 Nov 26 Sep 4 
Mar 26 Jan 2 Jul 30 May 8 Dec 3 Sep 11 
Apr 2 Jan 9 Aug 6 May 15 Dec 10 Sep 18 
Apr 9 Jan 16 Aug 13 May 22 Dec 17 Sep 25 
Apr 16 Jan 23 Aug 20 May 29 Dec 24 Oct 2 
Apr 23 Jan 30 Aug 27 Jun 5 Dec 31 Oct 9 
Apr 30 Feb 6 Sep 3 Jun 12 


MANAGEMENT 
BASICS FOR HIGHLAND OWNERS


Tom Field, Ph.D., John Scanga, Ph.D.,
Celina Johnson, Ph.D., Brett Kaysen & Michael Hays


William Danforth, the founder of Purina Mills, advocated that there were four fundamental factors required for 
successful livestock production: 

1. Good feeding 
2. Good breeding 
3. Proper sanitation 
4. Sound management and husbandry 
This philosophy is still appropriate in today’s environment. 

Good feeding requires that producers recognize the unique attributes of ruminant animals. The compartments of 
the bovine stomach include the omasum, abomasum, reticulum, and rumen. The rumen is the largest compartment that 
contains a dynamic microbial population of approximately 10 billion bacteria, 1 million protozoa and 10 thousand fungi 
per ml. of fluid. These microbes are responsible for digesting the cellulose and hemi-cellulose that comprise the 
structure of high roughage feedstuffs. The microbes of the rumen are the unique feature that allows cattle and other 
ruminant animals the competitive advantage of having a diet centered on the use of high fiber feeds. The microbes in 
the rumen produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) as a result of their own digestive activity. Cattle then use these VFAs as 
a primary energy source. This symbiotic relationship between cattle and the microbes in the rumen provide the basis 
for the ruminant’s role in grazing ecosystems. 

Accurate ration formulation requires the following information: 

1. Precise description of the class of cattle (gender, age, weight, frame size, body condition, stage of production 
and desired rate of gain) 
2. Accurate description of the nutrient content of the available feeds as verified by laboratory analysis 
3. Knowledge of the effects of climatic and environmental stressors on the nutritional requirements of animals 
4. Knowledge of the impacts of other management protocols such as animal health, usage of feed additives 
and/or implants, etc. on nutrition 
One of the keys to nutritional management is monitoring body condition of animals. Body condition scores can be 
assigned to individuals based on a visual assessment of the animal’s composition. The scoring system ranges from 1 to 
9 with 1 equal to severely emaciated and 9 equal to extremely obese. The target body condition score at weaning is a 
4+ to 5, at calving is a 5+ to 6 and a rising 5 at the time of breeding (one-half a BCS higher for heifers). 

Once body condition scores are assessed they can be coupled with other sorting criteria to establish management 
groups that can be fed to the specific needs of the group. For example, at weaning time the cow herd could be sorted 
into the following categories and then managed accordingly: 

1. Mature cows with a BCS of 4 or lower 
2. Mature cows with a BCS of 5 – 6 
3. Yearling heifers 
A number of digestive disorders may be encountered in cattle but the three most likely are bloat, acidosis and 
hardware disease. 
Bloat: The functional ruminant animal is able to expel gases created via microbial digestion. However, if the rumen is 
blocked or is rendered dysfunctional as a result of the gas accumulation, cattle will experience bloat. Bloat is 
characterized by distension of the upper left abdomen as a result of gas build-up. The use of an esophageal tube to 
release the gas is often required. 
Acidosis occurs when the rumen environment becomes too acidic as a result of excessive grain intake or reduced buffer 
production. There are two types of microbial digesters in the rumen – fiber digesters that prefer a pH of greater than 

6.2 and starch digesters that thrive in environments with a pH of 5.4 to 7.0. Because of these differences, it is 
imperative that as rations move from forage to forage plus grain that the dietary changes are conducted in a 
transitional manner to ensure normal rumen function. 

MANAGEMENT 
Hardware disease occurs when metal objects such as bits of wire, small nails, etc. are ingested, trapped in the 
honeycomb structure of the reticulum and migrate into other vital organs. Proper maintenance of facilities is the basis 
of prevention of this condition. However, in some circumstances, the use of a reticular magnet to hold metal in the 
reticulum may be warranted. 

Good breeding depends on the assessment and utilization of superior genetics. Ninety percent of the genetics of each 
calf crop is due to the influence of the last three herd sires used - sire (50%), sire of dam (25%) and sire of maternal 
grand dam (12.5%). Therefore, sire selection is of the utmost importance. Sire selection should be viewed as a strategic 
activity that is founded on the careful determination of breeding objectives and the systematic evaluation of potential 
parents and their ability to meet the genetic goals of the enterprise. Seedstoc